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$7.50 




U.S. COAST GUARD AUXILIARY 




* 




"C.#y 


CF 


CONcqtsS 


SAILING 
AND 

SEAMANSHIP 


FID 


























SAILING 

SO 

AND 

SEAMANSHIP 



U.S. COAST GUARD AUXILIARY 










Gl/eil 

.3x53 

Use 


Copyright© 1980 
by 

Coast Guard Auxiliary National Board, Inc. 
Washington, D.C. 

All rights reserved 

First Edition — 1978 
Second Edition — 1979 
Third Edition — 1980 

This book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced 
without written permission of the copyright owner. 

Library of Congress Card Number 76-29794 
ISBN 0-930028-02-3 

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 



Contents approved by the 
National Association of 
State Boating Law Administrators 
and recognized by the 
United States Coast Guard 


ii 




THE COMMANDANT OF THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 20590 



FOREWORD 


It has long been recognized that knowledge is the route 
to greater boating safety and increased boating pleasure. 
With this conviction the Coast Guard Auxiliary strives to 
reach and teach as many of the boating public as possible. 
The rapid growth of recreational boating and the recent 
increase in sailing makes this no easy task, but one well 
worth the effort in terms of problem avoided and lives 
saved. 

This text, SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP, is a comprehensive 
course, designed to foster increased safety awareness 
and to develop increased proficiency that will make 
sailing safe and trouble free. 

As Commandant of the United States Coast Guard, I 
heartily commend the Auxiliary for its concern, and I 
strongly recommend this course to all sailors as a step 
to safer boating and increased enjoyment of America's 
waters. 



J. B. HAYES 

Admiral, U. S. Coast Guard 








































































Preface 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP has been created by the men and 
women of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary to be, simply, the 
best instructional sailing text in existence. 

The Auxiliarists who produced this work number among them some of 
the most knowledgeable sailors in today’s boating world. Their com¬ 
bined efforts will give you the opportunity to enjoy to the fullest all of the 
pleasures of the great adventure of sailing. 

Whether you encounter this book as part of the Coast Guard Auxiliary’s 
public education program, or in your own pursuit of sailing skill, we feel 
that SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP will give you the knowledge and 
understanding necessary to cope with almost any situation on the water. 
The skills you derive from this book should enhance your pleasure 
afloat, by making you more confident and more seamanlike in both fair 
weather and foul. 

SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP has been prepared by the Coast 
Guard Auxiliary’s Department of Education with the cooperation of the 
United States Coast Guard. We appreciate, as always, their assistance 
and suggestions in achieving our common goal. 



Robert L. Horton 

National Commodore 

United States Coast Guard Auxiliary 


v 



















































































Contents 


PAGE 

Foreword . iii 

Preface . v 

Contents . vii 

CHAPTER 1. What Makes A Sailboat?. 1-1 

CHAPTER 2. How A Boat Sails . 2-1 

CHAPTER 2. Basic Sailboat Maneuvering . 3-1 

"* CHAPTER 3. Rigging and Boat Handling. 4-1 

CHAPTER 4. Weather Forecasting and Heavy Weather Sailing 5-1 

CHAPTER 5. Rules of the Road and Legal Requirements .... 6-1 

CHAPTER 6. Sailing Seamanship. 7-1 

CHAPTER 7. Engines For Sailboats. 8-1 

CHAPTER 8. Tuning and Variant Rigs . 9-1 

CHAPTER 9. Trailer Sailing . 10-1 

CHAPTER 10. Equipment For You and Your Boat . 11-1 

CHAPTER 11. Sailboat Piloting . 12-1 

CHAPTER 12. Radiotelephone . 13-1 

CHAPTER 13. Bibliography. Appendix A 

Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) . Appendix B 

Glossary .Appendix C 

Index . Index 1-1 


Color Inserts of Buoys and Day Markers 
International Code Flags & Phonetic Alphabet 


Vll 

































r f 











































































































Chapter 1 


What Makes A Sailboat? 


Although there are literally hundreds of types 
of sailboats afloat today, all sailboats are 
basically similar. In this book, we will concen¬ 
trate on more common kinds of boats, but the 
principles that apply to them will generally hold 
true for the exotic, unusual craft as well. 

In order to understand how sailing works, a 
beginner must first pick up a basic sailing vo¬ 
cabulary. As one of man’s most ancient ac¬ 
tivities, sailing has developed over the centuries 
a language of its own. Although many of the 
words may seem strange at first, there’s a reason 
for nearly all of them. Sailors’ jargon exists 
because the terms have no equivalent in or¬ 
dinary speech. Once you become accustomed to 
using sailors’ terminology, it will come natural¬ 
ly. And it’s a lot easier in the long run to have at 
your command a word like halyard, for in¬ 
stance, than to grope for the approximate equal 
in everyday English — rope or wire that raises 
and lowers a sail. 

Hulls and Hull Types 

There are two basic parts of any sailboat — 
the hull (or hulls) and the rig. Because hulls are 
common to all watercraft, let’s consider them 
first. A sailboat hull is simply the load-carrying 
part of the vessel. Besides supporting the crew, 
their equipment, the engine (if any) and the mast 
and sails, the hull also has the functional re¬ 
quirement of moving efficiently through the 



1-1 Typical Sailboat Hull 


water in the direction the boat is steered, and at 
the same time resisting forces that attempt to 
push it in other directions. A third requirement 
is that the hull stay reasonably upright, op¬ 
posing the pressure of wind on the sails. 


l-l 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


As sailboat designers are painfully aware, the 
three design objectives are sometimes in mutual 
opposition, and it can be a very tricky job to 
reconcile them. All boats, sail or power, are 
compromises, but sailing craft embody 
more trade-offs in their design than do other 
types. Most modern sailboats give nearly equal 
attention to stability, load-carrying ability and a 
speedy hull, with perhaps a slight tilt toward one 
factor or another, depending on the designer’s 
special aims. As one gets into the nearly “pure” 
racing sailboats, more and more is subordi¬ 
nated to emphasize speed-producing elements. 
At the other end of the spectrum, on some craft 
where sailing is a secondary aim, the hull is 
designed first and foremost for comfort instead 
of speed. 


A <pk 



1-2 International Class Type Hull 


Hull Chine 

A few years ago, when nearly all boats were 
built of wood, the most obvious basic distinc¬ 
tion between hull types was that of shape: hard 



1-3 Motor Sailer 


chine or round bottom. Round or at least 
curved bottoms have been the traditional hull 
shape for centuries. They are easy to move 
through the water, but are also easy to tip or 
heel. Their construction in wood planking 
requires both time and skill, and as the cost of 
workmanship has become a larger and larger 
factor in boatbuilding expense, round-bottom 
boats have become increasingly costly. 

By contrast, flat-bottom boats are easy to 
build, even for amateurs. With the advent of 
sheet plywood, flat-bottom craft became out¬ 
standingly inexpensive, but their tendency to 


1-2 














WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 



1-4 Hard Chine Hull 


1-5 Round Bottom Hull 




1-6 Hull - Carvel Wood Construction 


1-7 Hull - Plywood Construction 



pound in even a slightly choppy sea caused 
designers to draw in a mildly V-shaped bottom. 
The chine — or intersection between side and 


bottom — remained hard, or abrupt, giving the 
hull type its name. Hard-chine craft sail well as 
long as they remain upright, and they have con¬ 
siderable initial stability: They resist tipping 
easily. To illustrate for yourself the relative 
tipping tendencies of hard-chine and round- 
bottom hulls, lay a round bottle and a rec¬ 
tangular cardboard milk container in water. 
The bottle will spin easily around its axis, while 
the carton — with its hard chines — will not. 


1-3 






























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Fiberglass 

With the advent of fiberglass-molded hulls, it 
was as easy to produce a curved hull as a flat 
one. More important, fiberglass engineering 
makes use of some curvature in strengthening 
the hull. Because of this fact, and the great pre¬ 
dominance of fiberglass hulls today, most boats’ 
shapes are more or less curved and the hard 
chine has been considerably modified. 



Displacement vs Planing Hulls 

Sailboats can be divided into classes related 
to performance: There are displacement hulls 
on the one side and planing hulls on the other. 
The difference between them has to do with the 



way they function in the water. Any floating 
object at rest displaces an amount of water equal 
to its own weight. If you could freeze the water 
around and below a floating vessel, then remove 
the boat without cracking the ice, the hole left 
behind could contain an amount of water equal 
to the boat’s weight. 


Hull Speed 

As a boat begins to move, it still displaces its 
own weight of water: It must push aside the 
water ahead, while the water behind rushes in to 
fill the space vacated by the hull. This sounds 
like a process that requires a lot of effort, and it 
is. What’s more, a boat which can only move by 
displacing its own weight in water is restricted to 
a relatively low top speed. Without going into 
the technicalities involved, it is true that dis¬ 
placement boats generally cannot go faster than 
a certain speed which is closely related to the 
boat’s length. You can figure your boat’s maxi¬ 
mum displacement speed — called its hull speed 
— quite easily: take the boat’s length at the 
waterline, often known as its LWL, in feet, and 
derive the square root of that figure. Multiply 



1-4 

































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


this number by 1.34, and this is the boat’s ap¬ 
proximate maximum speed in nautical miles per 
hour. (A nautical mile is approximately 6,080 
feet, as opposed to 5,280 for a land mile. One 
nautical mile per hour is called one knot.) 



1-12 Hull Speed Formula 

It doesn’t matter if the boat in question is pro¬ 
pelled by oars, sails or engine, nor does it matter 
how much power is applied; unless the boat can 
escape from displacement-type movement 
through the water, it cannot increase its speed 
much above 1.34 x the square root of the water¬ 



line length. What this means in practice is that a 
displacement boat which is 16 feet long at the 
waterline cannot go much faster than 5.36 
knots. A considerably larger boat, 25 feet on the 
waterline, will only go about 6.7 knots. 

The normal displacement-type sailboat won’t 
even go this fast most of the time. A boat that 
can average a speed in knots equal to the square 
root of its waterline length in feet — 4 knots for 
a 16-foot boat — is doing very well. What’s 
holding the boat back is both friction from the 
water and the wave formation caused by the 
boat’s motion through the water. The speed-re¬ 
ducing waves are not the familiar, V-shaped 
swells that form the boat’s wake. In addition to 
these waves, the displacement hull forms two 
transverse — at right angles to the hull — waves, 
one near the bow and another at a variable dis¬ 
tance back toward the stern. As the boat gath¬ 
ers speed, the stern wave drops further aft, un¬ 
til at hull speed the boat is virtually suspended 
between the two. The only way to escape is for 
the boat to receive enough additional propul¬ 
sive force to ride up and over the bow wave, and 
then move,over instead of through,the water, 
rather like a ski moving on snow. This kind of 
motion, very familiar to powerboat people, is 



1-13 Wave Formation - Displacement vs Planing Hull 


1-5 







































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


called planing. While there are practical limits 
to planing speed in a boat, there is no theoret¬ 
ical maximum speed — iceboats, which have 
virtually no surface friction to contend with, 
have been clocked at well over 100 miles per 
hour. 


1-14 Hull - Planing - 505 Design 

While there are many factors that go into sail¬ 
ing hulls, the main requirements of planing are 
fairly obvious. The hull must be fairly shallow in 
shape, able to move easily over the water rather 
than through it; it cannot carry great loads; it 
requires sufficient power — whether in engine 
or sail area — to get it up and over the watery 
“hump” between displacement and planing and 
keep it in the latter type of movement. 

Boats that aren’t designed to plane may have 
deeper, fuller shapes. Generally speaking, they 
can carry greater loads relative to the size of the 


boat, and the power available is less — because 
more power will not move them faster than de¬ 
sign hull speed. To counterbalance the weight of 
masts and sails, displacement hulls frequently 
have a weighted appendage called a keel, which 
we’ll discuss later. When deep keeled displace¬ 
ment boats are overpowered either by wind or 
by surfing ahead of large waves, steering be¬ 
comes erratic or difficult, larger bow and 
secondary waves are formed and the hull ac¬ 
tually tends to ride relatively lower in the water. 
Planing boats seldom have deep keels and 
achieve stability either through hull shape or 
through the use of the crew as counterweights: 
Anyone who’s seen sailing photos has undoubt¬ 
edly encountered at least one shot of a planing 
boat with the crew hiked out over the side to 
keep the craft from heeling over too much. 

Parts of the Hull 

Many sailboat terms are so much part of the 
language that you’ll find you know them 
already. Words like starboard and port, for in¬ 
stance. Some other terms are less well known. 
Let’s run through the ones that pertain to the 



1-6 







































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


As in all boats, the front or forward end of a 
sailboat is the bow, pronounced as in the ex¬ 
clamation, “ow!” The other, or after, end is the 
stern. Facing forward, port is to your left and 
starboard to your right. If you measured the 
length of the boat along the deck from bow to 
stern, the dimension would be labeled as length 
over all. When the dimensions of sailboats 
appear in magazines or sales literature, this term 
is frequently abbreviated LOA. As you already 
know, length at the waterline is called LWL for 
short. The width of the hull at the widest point is 
her beam, and the depth of water required to 
float her is known as the boat’s draft. Many 
sailboats have retractable appendages called 
centerboards or daggerboards, so in this case 
two figures may appear for draft — board up 
and board down. 

The waterline is the line of intersection of the 
surface of the water and the boat’s hull. A line 
painted along and above the waterline when the 
boat is floating upright is called the boot top or 
boot stripe. It serves as a useful reference point 
to determine if the boat has been properly 
loaded. When the waterline shows clear around 
the hull and parallel to the surface of the water, 
the boat is said to be correctly trimmed. If the 
hull is down by the bow or stern, or tipped to 
one side or the other, or too high or low in the 
water, she’s out of trim. 



Boat is out of trim by having weight too far forward - she is 
down by the bow. Note that waterline of boat is visible at 
the stern, as opposed to vessel in illustration above. 



Boat is out of trim by having weight too far aft - she is down 
by the stern. Note that waterline of boat is visible at bow 
while stern is squatted down. The center of effort would be 
well aft of the center of lateral resistance providing this 
boat with a likelihood of excessive weather helm. 



Boat shown above is properly trimmed, fore and aft. She is 
well balanced as evidenced by waterline’s attitude relative 
to surface of water. 


1-16 Hull Trim-Correct vs Out-of-Trim 


1-7 














































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Very small sailboats may be completely open, 
with only a seat or two for the crew. Most boats, 
however, have a covering, the deck, over the 
forward part of the hull at least. And in many 
craft there are side decks as well. The deck keeps 
rain and spray out of the hull, provides a place 
to attach hardware, and helps keep the mast in 
place. The cut-out area in the center of the deck, 
from which the crew operates the boat, is the 
cockpit. There’s frequently a raised lip around 
the edge of the cockpit — the coaming — that 
serves to deflect water. 

Inside the cockpit are floorboards which form 
the surface on which the crew stands. In older 
boats this surface is composed of boards in a 
grid shape, but in many newer boats, floor¬ 
boards are represented by a molded fiberglass 
cockpit sole, or deck. Like other walk-on 
surfaces aboard, it should be non-skid: The 
effect may come from paint with sand in it, or 
(more commonly) from a molded-in pattern. If 
your boat doesn’t have non-skid where it’s 
needed, you can buy, at most boating supply 
stores, waterproof tape with a slightly abrasive 
surface. It’s a good investment in safety. 



1-17 Non-skid Deck Surface 


Most hardware on a sailboat is connected 
with handling the sails, but some pertains to the 
hull itself. Even the smallest boat should have a 
cleat or eve bolt at bow and stern for the attach¬ 
ment of mooring or towing lines. Cleats may be 
wood, metal or plastic, but they should be 
bolted through the deck and preferably through 
a backing plate under the deck as well. More 



Cleat 


Block 


1-18 Typical Thru-Bolted Cleat 

and more fiberglass sailboats have built-in flota¬ 
tion between the outer skin of the hull and the 
inner skin, called the liner. This flotation is 
usually in the form of rigid plastic foam, 
inserted in quantity sufficient to keep the water- 
filled boat plus her crew afloat. 



1-19 Cross Section of Hull Flotation 


Some boats have self-bailers built into the 
bottom. These are valves which operate to draw 
bilge water from the hull — but they only work 
when the boat is moving at a good clip. Don’t 
count on them to empty the boat when she’s at 
rest: For that you’ll need a pump or bailer. Some 
self-bailers actually take in water if the boat 
isn’t moving, and must be shut off once the boat 
slows down. If you have such a device built into 
your boat, make sure you know how it works 
before setting out. 




1-20 Typical Self-Bailer in Hull 


1-8 





























WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


Keel and Centerboard 

As noted above, sailboat hulls are designed to 
pursue a straight-ahead course with as little dis¬ 
turbance of the water as possible. At the same 
time the boat is moving forward, wind pressure 
on the sails is frequently attempting to push it to 
the side. This lateral or sideways movement 
caused by the wind is called leeway and is par¬ 
tially counteracted by the hull shape. When the 
boat is moving in the direction the wind blows it 
is moving to leeward (pronounced “loo’ard”). 

The portion of the hull shape that minimizes 
leeway is called either a keel or centerboard de¬ 
pending upon which is used in the design of the 
boat. This fin-shaped feature in the bottom of 
the hull allows forward movement, but in¬ 
creases the side profile of the hull thereby in¬ 
creasing lateral resistance. The obvious differ¬ 
ence, of course, is that the keel is normally fixed 
in place — bolted or molded to the hull — while 
the centerboard is raised and lowered through a 
slot in the bottom. Within the hull, the board is 
housed in a structure called the trunk. 

Fixed Keel 

A keel has the additional advantage — in 
normal construction — of no moving parts, 
hence nothing to break or jam. A lead keel 
bolted to the bottom of a boat’s hull is also soft 
enough to absorb the sudden jolt of a ground¬ 
ing on rock or coral without damaging the hull. 
But keels have their disadvantages, too: Lead is 
an expensive metal, and the depth of a keel may 
add so much to a boat’s draft that she is 
excluded from many shallow-water sailing 
areas. In addition, a boat with a fixed keel is dif¬ 
ficult to launch from a highway trailer and it will 
probably never have the potential for planing. 




Less obvious but really more important is the 
fact that the keel is usually weighted and the cen¬ 
terboard normally is not. While many boards 
are metal and quite heavy, their weight relative 
to the boat’s displacement is small. A keel, how¬ 
ever, may contain an amount of weight — 
usually in the form of lead ballast — equal to 
half the boat’s total displacement. This much 
weight is there for a reason. While the shape of 
the keel performs the function of preventing or 
minimizing leeway, its weight helps add to the 
boat’s stability by counter-balancing the heeling 
or overturning forces of wind on the sails and 
the weight of the mast, rigging and sails. 



1-23 Externally Ballasted Keel - Bulb Type 

Swing Keel 

Some designers have produced swing-keel 
boats: In these, the weighted keel can be 
partially retracted into the hull or locked in the 
fully-lowered position. For many people, swing- 
keel vessels are a good compromise, for while 
their sailing with the keel raised is sometimes 
limited, they can be launched from a standard 
trailer and they can be motored to and from 
deep water. 


1-9 























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




1-25 Keel Boat on Trailer 

Centerboard 

In most cases, however, when shallow draft is 
important the centerboard craft is the first 
choice. A centerboard can be fully raised, and 
since it pivots at the forward end of the board, 
the fin can be moved forward and backward as it 
rises and falls. As we shall see, this has an im¬ 
portant effect on the boat’s sailing ability under 
certain conditions. To counterbalance its ad¬ 
vantages, a centerboard has several drawbacks: 



To begin with, it is easily damaged if the boat 
should hit an underwater obstruction. Al¬ 
though the centerboard will sometimes pivot up 
into its trunk when it hits something, it’s more 
likely to splinter or crack (if wood), bend and 
jam in the trunk (if metal) or exert a sudden 
strain on the trunk and the hull, often leading to 
a serious leak. 



1-27 Centerboard and Trunk 


Centerboard trunk leaks are not as common 
in fiberglass boats as they were in wood craft, 
but they still happen, and they are still among 
the most stubborn defects to repair. 

Finally, a centerboard has the disadvantage 
of taking up space in the boat. Although some 
trunks don’t protrude very much above the 
floorboards, they are still visible, and it’s diffi¬ 
cult to use that area of the cockpit or cabin for 
anything else. Some high trunks require bracing 
to the sides of the hull, and it’s sometimes possi¬ 
ble to make these braces into seats, but for the 
most part a centerboard trunk is merely a prob¬ 
lem in an already crowded area. 

Besides a centerboard, there are three other 
types of fin used in boats. Each is designed to 
have some advantage over a centerboard in a 
specialized application. 

The Leeboard — invented centuries ago by 
the Dutch, and now seen mostly on small ding¬ 
hies. Leeboards are mounted on the sides of the 
hull, instead of in a trunk inside. They pivot in 
the same manner as a centerboad, but there are 
usually two of them. The name derives from the 
fact that only the board on the leeward side of 
the boat — the side away from the wind — is 


1-10 




































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


lowered at any one time. Leeboards are not as 
efficient as centerboards, but they don’t take up 
space in the boat, and they are a lot cheaper — 
even in pairs. They are, however, also prone to 
damage when coming alongside piers or other 
boats. 



The Bilgeboard — Sometimes seen on flat- 
bottomed sail racers, bilgeboards are paired like 
leeboards, but are placed on either side of the 
cockpit. They are said to aid in sailing effi¬ 
ciency, but they also make for more compli¬ 
cated construction. 



The Daggerboard — By far the most popular 
alternative to the centerboard, the dagger slides 
up and down in its trunk, instead of pivoting. It 
has the advantage of simplicity over the center- 
board, requiring no pennant, or line, to raise 
and lower it. In small boats, the daggerboard 
usually has a handle fixed to the top to make lift¬ 
ing easier. The problem with a daggerboard is 
that, since it’s not pivoted, it must when raised 
extend above the top of its trunk. This has two 
implications: First, the trunk cannot be capped 
at the top, which leads to a considerable amount 
of water splashing into the cockpit. Second, 
when fully raised the dagger greatly interferes 


with operations in the cockpit and may even get 
in the way of maneuvering. Its cheapness and 
simplicity have, however, made it a standard in¬ 
stallation on smaller boats. Although a center- 
board may pivot upward out of harm’s way if a 
submerged object is struck, a daggerboard 
almost certainly cannot slide upward, and it is 
thus considerably more vulnerable. 



1-30 Daggerboard 

Using the Centerboard or Daggerboard 

One advantage of both the centerboard and 
the daggerboard over the fixed keel is that they 
can be raised or lowered in varying heights to 
counter the effects of leeway and minimize 
underwater hull resistance. The racing skipper 
knows that when running downwind with the 
board raised the boat will move faster than 
another boat which has its board down. This 
same skipper will have to drop the board when 
reaching or beating if leeway is to be mini¬ 
mized. 

In Chapter 9 you will understand that the 
underwater shape and hull profile can be varied 
by adjusting the board height (either center- 
board or daggerboard) and that the ultimate 
trim and steering of the boat are affected by the 
height of the board. The amount that a skipper 
varies the board will depend upon experience 
and confidence as well as individual preference. 
Many successful skippers drop the centerboard 
or daggerboard completely and never raise it 
except when sailing into shallow water or onto a 
beach. 

Care of the Centerboard or Daggerboard 

As either the centerboard or daggerboard is 
adjustable, care should be taken to make sure 
that it can be raised or lowered with ease. Oc¬ 
casionally a tight fitting board or the trunk itself 
will swell or expand when the boat is left in the 
water for a period of time resulting in damage to 
the trunk itself as well as extreme difficulty in 


1-11 




































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


raising or lowering the board when required. 

Centerboard boats which must be left in the 
water require attention to prevent the center- 
board itself from being jammed in the trunk in 
the “up” position by marine growth. In addition 
to regular haulouts and bottom painting, proper 
prevention could be underwater hull cleaning or 
brushing and movement of the centerboard 
through constant or routine use. 

Centerboards and Daggerboards 
on Multihulls 

Most trailerable catamarans do not have a 
centerboard in either hull whereas large cata¬ 
marans which must be kept in the water will 
have either a keel or centerboard in each hull. 
The design and depth of the hulls will often pro¬ 
vide enough area that a centerboard or keel is 
not required. Ballast for either centerboards or 
keels is not usually required because the design 
of the two hulls, side by side, provides great 
initial stability, resistance to overturning forces. 



Trimarans will have either a centerboard or a 
keel in the center hull which might be either bal¬ 
lasted or unballasted, depending upon the size 
of the hull and the speeds for which the craft is 
designed. Trailerable trimarans will usually 
have an unballasted centerboard. 



Twinkeels 

The twinkeel or bilge keel is a popular keel de¬ 
sign in some shallow water areas or areas subject 
to extreme ranges in tide. Twinkeels provide an 
opportunity for a boat so designed to rest on its 
bottom upright at low tide if necessary. This de¬ 
sign is similar to that of the bilgeboards except 
that the keels are permanently fixed and are not 
lowered or raised through the hull. The depth of 
the twinkeels is less than that of one single keel. 


A twinkeeled vessel is usually of the 
trailerable size. 



Steering Systems 

Most people, even if they’ve never seen a boat, 
are aware that it is steered by means of a rudder. 
A rudder is a fin located toward the stern of the 
boat. On small craft, it’s usually hinged to the 
transom, at the very stern. As it pivots from side 



1-34 Rudder 


1-12 


























































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


to side, the rudder has one face or the other to 
the pressure of water streaming past the moving 
boat. The pressure of water on the rudder blade 
pushes the stern to one side or the other. 

On most smaller sailboats, the rudder is 
worked by a simple lever called a tiller, which 
makes it possible to turn even a fairly large 
rudder on a fast-moving boat without too much 
effort. On larger craft steering wheels are quite 
common and provide even more mechanical ad¬ 
vantage than do tillers. A steering wheel on a 
boat works in the same manner as the one on 
your car: Turn the wheel to the right, the boat 
turns to starboard, and vice versa. 



1-35 Typical Transom Mounted Rudder 

A tiller, on the other hand, operates in re¬ 
verse: Push the tiller to starboard, and the boat 
swings to port. What happens is that the boat’s 
stern is thrust sideways by water pressure 
against the rudder blade. As the stern swings to 
starboard (let us say), the boat pivots around its 
keel or centerboard, and the bow must swing 
away to the other side — to port, in this case. It 
takes beginning sailors a little while to get used 
to this fact of tiller steering, but once one has 
become accustomed to pushing the tiller in one 
direction to have the boat turn in the other, it’s 
quite natural. 

In steering a boat with a tiller, a few things are 
important to remember: First, don’t forget that 



the boat pivots like a weathervane around a 
point somewhere near amidships — the center 
of the boat. In this, a boat is quite unlike a car, 
which follows its front wheels through a turn. A 
boat turning is more like a car skidding — the 
bow describes a small circle, while the stern 
swings in a wider circle outside it. This means 
that careless skippers frequently hit docks and 
other boats with their own boats’ sterns when 
turning sharply. 

Second, bear in mind that a rudder cannot 
function unless water is moving past it. For this 
reason a boat must gain speed before it can be 
steered — unless, of course, it’s anchored in a 
place where water is running swiftly past the hull 
while the boat is standing still, as in a river. 

Third, consider that a rudder pushed too hard 
to one side or the other acts more like a brake 
than a turning force: With the face of the rudder 
at right angles (or nearly) to the moving water, 
the boat’s tendency is simply to slow down and 
even become unmanageable. One of the first 
things to learn about any boat is how far the 
tiller must be put over to one side in order to 
make the boat turn. Chances are it’s less than 
you think. 

This, then, is the basic boat: a hull to carry 
crew and equipment, a keel or centerboard to 
keep the boat from sliding sideways, and a 
rudder (with tiller or wheel) for steering. So far, 
our boat could be any type, because we have not 
yet come to grips with driving power. 


1-13 


















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



1-37 Rudder Turning Boat 


1-38 Braking Action of Rudder 


The Rig 

The rig is the collective term for the various 
elements that form a sailboat’s power system. 
There are basically three interacting parts — the 
spars, the rigging, and the sails. 

Spars 

Spar is the general term for the rigid mem¬ 
bers that support and extend sails and other 
parts of the rigging. The primary spar is the 
mast, a vertical member that holds the sails up. 
Most boats also have at least one boom, which 
holds out the foot of the sail at right angles to the 
mast. The mast and boom are joined by a kind 
of universal joint called a gooseneck, which 
allows the boom to pivot up, down or sideways. 
There are other types of spars — gaffs, yards, 
spinnaker poles, to name the most common — 
but they are restricted to specialized boat types 
or advanced forms of sailing, and will be dealt 
with later. 

As noted above, spars may be made of several 
kinds of materials. Because of its strength, rela¬ 
tive light weight, and good durability, alum¬ 
inum is now far and away the most popular spar 
material, and seems likely to remain so. On 
some smaller boats where bending spars are 
useful, fiberglass spars, rather like oversize fish¬ 
ing poles, are occasionally seen. Older boats and 


ones of traditional appearance may retain wood 
spars, either hollow sections glued together or 
solid pieces of timber. 

Whatever the construction material, spars 
have much the same kinds of fittings attached to 
them. As we shall see in a later section, it’s 



1-14 




















WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 



important to be able not only to extend a sail, 
but also to vary the amount of tension along any 
one of the sail’s edges. The sail control fittings 
on the spars perform this function. Once we’ve 
had a chance to consider how the sails are 
shaped and made fast to the spars, we can 
consider the various types of fittings and how 
they work. 

For the moment, consider first the basic (in 
several senses) fitting called the step. This is a 
socket in the bottom of the boat, often set di¬ 
rectly into the keel, the vessel’s backbone, of the 
vessel. The mast fits into or onto the step, which 
is so shaped that the spar’s heel, or base, cannot 
slide off. In most boats, the mast is held in place 
by being passed through a tight-fitting hole in 



the deck or a forward seat. Often, in larger 
boats, the mast passes through the cabin roof, 
where a reinforcing collar is placed to help take 
the strain of the spar. On some small boats, this 
arrangement is enough support for the mast, but 
on most a certain amount of rigging, varying 
with the size of boat, is necessary to keep the 
mast up and straight. 


Standing and Running Rigging 

There are two basic types of rigging — stand¬ 
ing and running. The function of each is fairly 
well expressed by its name. Standing rigging 
stays put; it supports the mast under tension. 
Running rigging, by contrast, moves: it runs 
through blocks (the nautical term for pulleys) to 
raise and lower or extend and pull back the sails. 


Standing Rigging 

The standing rigging of the average small sail¬ 
boat is not complicated. It’s especially easy to 
comprehend if you remember that its purpose is 
to keep the mast upright and straight. (There are 
exceptions, but this statement remains true for 
most boats, large and small.) Remember also 
that any pull on the mast from one direction 
must be matched from the opposite side, if the 
spar is to remain in position and untwisted. 

Standing rigging which keeps the mast from 
falling forward over the bow or backward over 
the stern consists of one or more forestays and 
backstays. As you might easily guess, a forestay 
is in the forward part of the boat. It runs from a 
metal plate on deck — the tack fitting — to a po¬ 
sition at or near the top of the mast, and it keeps 
that spar from toppling backward. In opposi¬ 
tion to it is the backstay, which runs from the 
stern up to the masthead. In some cases where 
the rudder and tiller are in the way, two back¬ 
stays are fitted, running to corners — the 
quarters — of the stern. And sometimes a back¬ 
stay is shaped like an inverted Y, for the same 
reason. 

When, for reasons of design, the forestay 
doesn’t end near the masthead, tension to 
balance the backstay is provided by short, hori¬ 
zontal spars called jumper struts, over which 


1-15 






























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



1-37 Rigging Nomenclature 


1-16 























































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 


run jumper stays. On small boats, where the 
mast is thick and strong enough to take such 
strains, jumper struts and stays aren’t necessary. 

A mast is kept from falling to the side by 
standing rigging, called shrouds. On small boats 
there is usually only one set, running from the 
side of the hull up to the masthead. Sometimes, 
to make a more mechanically effective lead of 
the shrouds to the masthead, a pair of horizontal 
spars called spreaders are fitted about two- 
thirds the way up the mast. The spreader, as its 
name suggests, simply widens the angle at which 
the wire reaches the masthead, giving a more 
effective sideways angle of pull. 

The shrouds which run over spreaders to the 
masthead are called upper shrouds, or just 
uppers. Other shrouds run from the sides of the 
hull to the mast just beneath the intersection of 
the spreaders; these are lower shrouds or lowers. 
There may be one or two pairs of them. On some 
boats, an inner forestay does the same job as the 
pair of forward lowers. 

Both shrouds and stays are normally made of 
stiff wire rope, generally stainless steel. Since it’s 
necessary to balance off the stresses of the var¬ 
ious pieces of standing rigging against their op¬ 
posite numbers, adjuster fittings are provided at 
the bottom of each stay and shroud. The stand- 



1-43 Shroud or Stay Fittings 


ard type of adjuster is called a turnbuckle, 
usually cast in bronze or stainless steel. It allows 
for a limited amount of adjustment of wire ten¬ 
sion, a process called tuning, dealt with in more 
detail in Chapter 9. 

The turnbuckles are in turn fitted to toggles, 
small castings that allow the turnbuckle to lie in 
the same straight line as the stay or shroud to 
which it is fitted. And the toggles, in turn, are 
secured to chainplates — heavy metal straps 
bolted and/ or fiberglassed to the hull or its prin¬ 
cipal bulkheads. 

Running Rigging 

While standing rigging is almost invariably 
wire, running rigging may be wire or rope or 
both. The two most common types of running 
rigging are halyards, which raise and lower the 
sails, and sheets, which control the shape of a 
sail. There are other kinds of running rigging, 
but they are specialized in nature, to be discus¬ 
sed later. 



1-44 Wire-Rope Halyard 

Each sail has at least one halyard, which nor¬ 
mally takes its name from the sail it raises. Be¬ 
cause rope stretches, halyards are frequently 
half rope and half wire, so that when the sail is 


1-17 











SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


fully raised, all the tension is taken by non¬ 
stretching wire. Sheets, which are also named by 
the sail they control, are normally Dacron line: 
Dacron rather than the popular nylon because 
nylon stretches a great deal, and Dacron 
doesn’t. In a sheet, one can tolerate a slight 
amount of stretch, but too much stretch is not 
good — whereas it is helpful in shock-absorbing 
lines connected to anchors. The type of wire 
used for halyards is quite flexible, and different 
in construction, if not in material, from the wire 
used for stays and shrouds. 



1-45 Masthead Fittings 


Each sail has a halyard, but in some cases the 
same halyard is used by more than one sail, as 
we shall see. Halyards run either through rol¬ 
lers — called sheaves — set into the top of the 
mast, or through blocks attached to the mast, 
depending on how high the sail is to be raised. 
Most halyards terminate at cleats on the mast 
itself, and in many cases (especially aboard 
larger craft) the halyard is led around a winch to 
increase the tension on it and, by extension, on 
the sail it is raising. 

Once raised, a sail must be adjusted so it sets 
at a particular angle to the wind. The lines con¬ 
trolling this adjustment are the sheets. They nor¬ 
mally run from the after corner of the sail, 



1-46 Halyard Block 

known as the clew, or from the mainsail boom 
down to the cockpit. Mechanical advantage of 
the sheets may be increased by the use of 
winches or block-and-tackle systems as re¬ 
quired. The end of a sheet is made fast to a cleat. 
While the traditional, anvil-shaped cleats are 
often seen, more and more skippers are turning 
to one or another style of quick-release cam or 
jam cleats. In these devices, the rope is simply 
led through a gripping pair of jaws which hold it 
fast until it’s forcibly released by a crew 
member. The attachment is as secure as cleat- 
ing the line, and a great deal quicker both to 
make fast and to let free — and in smaller boats, 
quick release of a sheet may be the difference be¬ 
tween capsizing and staying upright. 

A third type of running rigging is the topping 
lift, which is discussed in Chapters 4 and 9. 



1-42 Halyard Winch 


1-18 



































WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 



Sails 

All this structure — spars, standing and 
running rigging — exists to make the sails func¬ 
tion efficiently. Today’s sails are, for the most 
part triangular, and are known as jib-headed, 
Marconi or Bermudan: All three terms are syn¬ 
onymous. Back in the days when sailboats 
functioned as fishing craft or ferries, the sails 
employed in everyday business were known, 
quite appropriately, as the working sails. Boats 
have changed, and working sail isn’t quite as 
useful a term as it once was, but for conven¬ 
ience’ sake we shall use it here, for lack of a 
better. 

The most common American sailboat type is 
called the sloop — a vessel with a single mast 
and two sails, one set ahead of the mast and one 
behind. The latter sail is called the mainsail, 
usually shortened to main, and the former is the 


jib. The sails have a number of terms asso¬ 
ciated with them, and it will help to learn them. 

The triangular mainsail has the same names 
for its three corners as does the jib — the head, 
at the top; the tack, at the forward lower corner; 
and the clew, at the after lower corner. Either 
sail’s leading edge is the luff, sometimes refer¬ 
red to by old-timers as the hoist; its lower edge is 
its foot, and its after edge is the leech. Each sail is 
formed from a number of cloths sewn together 
in one of several patterns. Because a sail, unlike 
a flag, is really a three-dimensional shape (think 
of an airplane’s wing), the cloths are joined to 
create this form, either flat or full. The sail’s 
edges are reinforced with rope or extra thick¬ 
nesses of cloth, or with wire sewed to the luff of 
the sail. 

A mainsail is attached to the mast along its 
luff and to the boom along its foot. The normal 


1-19 

























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



1-45 Sail Parts 


hardware used are slides, which ride along a sur¬ 
face track on the top of the spar, or slugs, which 
fit a groove recessed into the mast or boom. 
Sometimes a roped edge of the sail fits inside the 
track groove. The sail’s leech is the free side, and 
it is normally reinforced and to a great extent 
supported by wood or plastic battens, strips set 
into pockets at right angles to the leech. The 
reason for these supports is that the mainsail’s 
leech, unlike its luff or foot, is cut into a convex 
curve called the roach, for greater sail area. 

r I 

At each corner of the sail is a cringle, a cir¬ 
cular metal reinforcement for attaching hard¬ 
ware: The halyard is made fast to the head 
cringle; the gooseneck is fitted to the tack 
cringle; and the outhaul, a carriage riding on the 
boom to extend the foot of the sail, is fitted to 
the clew cringle. 

The jib is a somewhat simpler sail to de¬ 
scribe: It has, as noted, the same names as the 
main for its three sides, three corners and for its 


three cringles. But the jib usually has no boom, 
only its luff being made fast, by means of snap 
hooks or hanks, to the forestay; both the leech 
and the foot are normally free sides. The jib tack 
fastens with a shackle to the tack fitting that 
holds the forestay, and of course the jib’s head 
takes the halyard shackle. The jib clew cringle 
accepts the jib sheets — usually a pair of lines 
that lead aft to cleats on either side of the cock¬ 
pit. 

Today’s sails are nearly all made from syn¬ 
thetic fabric, usually Dacron but sometimes 
nylon. Dacron stretches less than nylon, and is 
used for mainsails and jibs, while nylon is used 
for sails where slight shape deformation is no 
problem (see Chapter 9). Dacron sails require 
little or no care compared to their cotton pre¬ 
decessors: It helps, if sailing on salt water, to 
wash the salt out of them from time to time, and 
one should if possible dry the sails before 
stowing them in their bags for prolonged 
periods to avoid mildew, which will not affect 
Dacron except to make unsightly stains on its 
surface. Sails should be stowed neatly after each 



1-46 Folding Sail for Storage 




1-20 
























WHAT MAKES A SAILBOAT? 





1-52 Sail Construction 




1-53 Typical Jib to Forestay Attachment 


1-54 Tack Fitting 
















































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


excursion, either furled (on the boom) with a 
sail cover or folded, in a sailbag. Like all artifi¬ 
cial fibers, Dacron is sensitive to prolonged sun¬ 
light, and it will weaken badly if left uncovered. 

There are other shapes of sail besides the Ber¬ 
mudan, and in some applications these variants 
have important advantages. For the most part, 
however, the triangular Bermudan main and jib 
are the most efficient, cheapest to make (if one 
includes the cost of the rig) and easiest to 
handle. On some quite small boats, the tall mast 
required for an effective Bermudan rig may be a 
danger at anchor, when the weight of the spar 



1-53 Lateen Rig 

can cause the boat to tip over or capsize. In such 
a situation, a short mast can be combined with a 
gunter or a lateen rig. The upper spar, called a 
gaff on the gunter rigged boats and a yard on la- 
teeners, allows the head of the main to be raised 
when sailing, without having an overwhelming 



1-56 Parts of Gaff Rig 

weight of spar to make the boat unbalanced at 
anchor. 

In the early years of the 20th centry, before 
aluminum spars and stainless steel shrouds and 
stays made tall spars practical, most boats were 
gaff-rigged. A gaff mainsail has a luff, foot and 
leech in the same places as its Bermudan cousin, 
but its head is the upper edge of the sail, limited 
by a throat at the junction of head and luff, and 
a peak at the upper end of the head. A gaff sail 
permits a great deal of area close to the water, 
but it also is more complicated and generally re¬ 
quires not only an extra spar — the gaff itself — 
but also two halyards, one each at peak and 
throat. 

The gaff-rigged sail is demonstrably less effi¬ 
cient than a Bermudan sail most of the time, but 
many people have an affection for gaff sails be¬ 
cause of their traditional appearance. A sloop 
with a gaff mainsail has, of course, a jib of 
normal shape. 


1-22 
















Chapter 2 


How A Boat Sails 


A sailboat’s rig is its engine, and the fuel, of 
course, is the wind. As you become a better 
sailor, you’ll want to know more about how the 
wind works (some additional reading is 
suggested in the Bibliography), but at this stage 
a few simple facts are all you need. 

The Nature of Wind 

By definition, wind is air in motion. When 
you stand on a pier and feel the breeze on your 
face, what you’re sensing is the true, or geo¬ 
graphic wind — moving air as perceived from 
your position. With a little experience, you’ll 
learn to tell how strongly the wind is blowing 
and what direction it’s coming from. (Wind di¬ 
rections, by the way, are always given in rela¬ 
tion to where the wind is blowing from: Thus, a 
north wind is blowing from north to south.) 



2-1 True Wind 


A moving vehicle, on land or sea, creates a 
“wind” of its own as it moves through the air. 
Suppose, for example, that you’re in a power¬ 
boat on a day when no true wind is blowing at 
all. You’re chugging in a northerly direction at 
10 knots. If you raise your head above the wind¬ 
shield, you’ll feel a “north wind” of that same 
strength — 10 nautical miles per hour — blow¬ 
ing straight at you. This is the boat’s wind of 
motion. 



2-1 

























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Now take the example one step farther: 
You’re again in a powerboat, again moving 
north at 10 knots. But this time, there is a wind 
blowing from the north at five knots. What do 
you feel, riding in the boat? A 15-knot wind — 
your boat’s wind of motion, added to the true 
wind. This result is called apparent wind: The 
wind perceived from a moving vehicle. On a 
windless day, the apparent wind is of course the 
same as the wind of motion, but otherwise it’s 
the combined force and direction of true wind 
and wind of motion. 


Apparent 

Wind 


True 

Wind 


° 4 

^ Boat's 
I Motion 


\ 

* 

\ 


y 






From the North True Wind 7 Kts 



I 

Apparent 
Wind 
12 Kts N 





Apparent 


Wind 


2 Kts S 



Boat's 
Speed 
5 Kts 


2-3 Relation Between True Wind 


and Boat Speed 


Sometimes the apparent wind is less than 
either of its two components: Imagine that we’re 
still in our powerboat, moving at 5 knots to the 
north into a north wind that’s blowing at seven 
knots. We turn the boat in the opposite direc¬ 
tion, while maintaining its speed: Now we’re 
going south at 5 knots, with a seven knot wind 
blowing from directly astern of us. In this case, 
our apparent wind is 7 knots minus 5 knots, or a 
mere 2 knots. 


Apparent wind is easy to calculate when the 
wind is directly ahead or astern. It’s a bit more 
complicated when the wind is blowing from 
somewhere on either side of the boat. In a situa¬ 
tion like this, if we know the true wind’s speed 
and direction (which we can observe before we 
set out) and the boat’s speed and direction, we 


2-4 Apparent Wind 


can figure out the apparent wind by use of a dia¬ 
gram called a wind vector. 

On small boats, no one bothers with this kind 
of technical detail, except perhaps for very in¬ 
tense racing skippers. All you as a sailor have to 
know is the general idea of apparent wind and 
what makes it up, because it’s apparent wind 
that conditions not only the directions in which 
your boat can sail but also how much or little 
sail you should raise: Many sailors who don’t 
consider apparent wind get an unpleasant sur¬ 
prise when, after sailing with the wind for some 
time, they suddenly head their boat into the 



2-2 




























HOW A BOAT SAILS 


breeze — only to find that what appeared a 
gentle zephyr when heading downwind is quite 
blustery when going the other way. 

To be aware of wind direction, most skippers 
use a form of wind vane or telltale. It may be a 
rigid, pivoting vane at the masthead, a cloth 
pennant, or a strip of fabric tied to one of the 
shrouds: The idea is the same in each case — to 
locate the vane in a place where it can easily be 
seen and where the wind hitting it will not have 
been deflected by the sails or rigging. On most 
small boats, the only practical location for a 
vane is at the masthead, but because the wind at 
the top of a larger boat’s mast may be blowing in 
a slightly different direction than the breeze at 
deck level, big sailboats usually have extra tell¬ 
tales tied or taped to the upper shrouds about 
four or five feet from the deck, and another, for 
measuring the wind astern, made fast to the 
backstay. 

On cruising sailboats, where the mast may be 
30, 40 or even 50 feet high, an electronic device 





2-6 Mast Head Wind Devices 



2-7 Telltales on Shrouds 

at the masthead may measure both wind direc¬ 
tion and speed, for readout on a pair of instru¬ 
ment dials in the cockpit. While this sort of in¬ 
strumentation is available for quite small craft, 
it’s really not necessary. 



2-8 Cockpit Instruments 


2-3 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Points of Sailing —■ Running 

It’s easy to visualize a sailboat moving with 
the wind behind it — being pushed downwind. 
When the wind is more or less directly astern of 
a boat, she is said to be running. For most effi¬ 
cient sailing, the main and jib should, if possi¬ 
ble, be at right angles to the apparent wind 
(which is, in this case, from the same direction as 
the true wind). 

Because the mainsail is likely to blanket the 
jib if both sails are extended to the same side of 
the boat, when running the sails are set wing- 
and-wing — fully out on either side of the vessel. 
A boat sailing directly before the wind can be 
somewhat difficult to steer, responding slug¬ 
gishly to her rudder. In addition, the wind di¬ 
rection is constantly changing in small degrees, 
and it’s possible for the wind to get behind the 
fully extended mainsail and blow it — boom 
and all — across the boat to fully extended on 
the other side. This maneuver is called a jibe and 
is perfectly acceptable when done properly and 
on purpose (see Chapter Three); an accidental 
jibe, however, can put serious strains on the rig¬ 
ging and should be avoided. 



Sailing Wing and Wing 

The best way to keep the boom in its place, es¬ 
pecially on very windy days, is to sail with the 
wind coming from either quarter — over the 
corners of the transom. On this heading, the 
mainsail will be reasonably efficient and you 
should be able to set the jib on the opposite side. 
You may require a portable spar called a 
whisker pole to keep the jib standing and filled. 
A whisker pole is a light aluminum tube with a 
snap hook at one end and a narrow prong at the 


other. The snap hook fits to an eye on the for¬ 
ward side of the mast, while the prong goes 
through the jib clew cringle. When the jib sheet 
is pulled back, the pole acts like a boom. 

It takes a good deal of practice to be able to 
sail a boat wing-and-wing, and for a long time it 
will seem that it’s more trouble than it’s worth. If 
your boat has a very small jib, it may indeed be 
too much effort to bother winging it out — con¬ 
centrate at least for the time being on sailing 
with the main alone. 



2-10 Wind Over the Quarter - Using 
Whisker Pole 


Try to keep the sail at right angles to the ap¬ 
parent wind, watching either the telltale on the 
backstay or the masthead vane. To adjust the 
angle at which the wind strikes the sail, you can 
either turn the whole boats or play the main- 
sheet in and out. Many experienced sailors 
never cleat the mainsheet at alf, and certainly the 
sheet should always be ready to let run, to spill 
the wind from the sail in a hurry. At the same 
time, it’s tiring and dull to have to hold a piece of 
line all day. Perhaps the best compromise is the 
use of one of the quick-release cleats mentioned 
earlier. 



2-11 Whisker Pole and Fittings 


2-4 










HOW A BOAT SAILS 


Eye of Wind 



2-12 Eye of the Wind 


Points of Sailing — Close Hauled 

We can easily understand how a boat can sail 
before the wind, but it’s harder to understand 
how a boat moved by the wind can sail into the 
direction from which the wind is blowing — yet 
modern, well-designed sailboats can sail to 
within 40° of the true wind. And even ordinary, 
nonperformance craft can usually sail to within 
50° of the direction from which the wind is 
blowing. For purposes of discussion, we nor¬ 
mally say that the average boat can sail to within 
approximately 45° of the wind’s eye — the di¬ 
rection from which the true wind is coming. 

That means, of course, that a sailboat skipper 
in a reasonably good boat has a choice of head¬ 
ings covering 270 degrees of the conventional 
360° circle. This is a major improvement over 


the old square-rigged sailing vessels of the age of 
sail. They could only sail about 200 of the 360°. 

A sailboat heading at approximately 45° to 
the true wind is said to be sailing close hauled. 
She may also be referred to as beating to wind¬ 
ward, being on the wind or simply beating. All 
these terms mean the same thing — the boat re¬ 
ferred to is sailing as close to the direction from 
which the wind is blowing as she efficiently can. 

How is it done? Essentially, a sail on a boat 
going to windward is performing like an air¬ 
plane wing. The technical term for it is airfoil. 
You remember that in Chapter One we men¬ 
tioned a sail as having a three-dimensional 
shape built into it. That shape — a curve — is 
such that the flow of wind over the leeward side 
of the sail (the side away from the wind) acts the 


2-5 



















































































































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



Decreased Pressure 
Due to Increased 
Wind Speed 


2-13 Airfoil Section of Sail 


same way as does the flow of air over the upper 
side of an aircraft wing. 

To simplify what’s happening, the air is split 
by the sail or wing. Part of the air passes closely 
over each side of the airfoil, but the air passing 
the leeward side of the sail or the upper side of 
the wing creates a negative pressure, or lift, 
which tends to move sail or wing upward and 
forward. This lift is generated in the forward 
quarter of the sail, along the luff and a rela¬ 
tively small distance back; the direction of the 





lift is at right angles to the sail, which is why a 
fairly pronounced curve is cut into the luff of a 
mainsail or jib. 

When going to windward, wind pressure on 
the sails can be divided into three components 
— heeling, sideways, and forward. Heeling 
pressure is simply the wind’s effort to tip the 
boat over to leeward; it can be counteracted by a 
ballast keel, by crew weight (on a small boat), or 
by sail trim. The other two aspects of lift are 
what determine how well a given boat can move 
to windward: The total lift pressure, coming off 
the luff of the mainsail, drives the boat diagon¬ 
ally forward. For ease in visualizing, we can 
divide the lift into forward thrust and a consid¬ 
erably larger sideways thrust. 

Sail shape and trim maximize the forward ele¬ 
ment of thrust, but it remains less than side¬ 
ways thrust on even the best-designed rig. What 
keeps the boat from sailing the diagonal course 
dictated by thrust on the sails is the hull shape. 
Whether keel or centerboard, the boat’s under¬ 
body is so designed (as we saw in Chapter One), 
that leeway, or sidewise motion, is strongly re¬ 
sisted, while the hull may be easily driven for¬ 
ward through the water. 


Function of Jib Close Hauled 

Thanks to great refinements in hull and sail 
design, today’s sailboats move to windward very 
efficiently, all things considered. Both sails 
function in this process, but the jib — if it is a 
large one, as many are today — contributes 
more lift than does the main, by virtue of the fact 
that lift over the mainsail surface is at least par¬ 
tially canceled out by the effects of turbulence 
caused by the mast, while air striking the jib luff 
is only mildly disturbed by the forestay, jib 
snaps and sail luff. 

Not only does the jib provide its own lift to 
windward, it also helps funnel wind across the 
leeward surface of the mainsail. Many authori¬ 
ties believe that this creates a “slot effect” which 
accelerates the wind over the main and thus 
makes its lift more effective. 

If lift is to be created, the wind flow must pass 
smoothly over the surfaces of the sail, with as 
little turbulence as possible. In order for smooth 


2-6 





















HOW A BOAT SAILS 



2-15 Sail Slot Effect 

flow to occur, the sail must be at the proper 
angle to the wind. If the angle between sail and 
wind is much too small, the sail will luff, or 
shiver, along its windward edge; a luffing sail is 
an obvious warning that one is far too close to 
the wind. It is possible, however, to sail with 
enough wind in the sails to fill them, yet at an in¬ 


correct angle, so that lift* isn’t nearly as great as 
it should be. Until fairly recently, it was hard to 
sail to windward efficiently, and most people 
took many hours of practice to develop a “feel” 
for when the boat was moving most efficiently 
to windward. 

Now such a feel, while useful in getting the 
last ounce of drive from a boat, isn’t really nec¬ 
essary. Thanks to a recent development, a 
person at the helm can now “see” how the wind 
is moving over the sails of his or her boat. 
Simply thread two or three pieces of knitting 
yarn, in a color that contrasts with the sail, 
through the jib luff at evenly spaced intervals. 
These tell-tales, usually called woolies, should 
be four to six inches back from the jib luff and 
eight inches to a foot in from the mainsail luff. 
They should be long enough — six inches or so 
on either side of the sail — to hang freely, yet not 
so long that they catch in seams or get snagged 
when the sail is bagged or set. 



2-7 































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


When sailing to windward, pull the jib sheet 
as tightly as possible and hold it, while edging 
the boat up into the wind. As the jib ap¬ 
proaches its optimum angle with the wind, both 
windward and leeward woolies will stream 
straight back across the sail. If the boat is too 
close to the wind, windward streamers, on the 
concave side of the sail, will begin to lift and 
twirl, graphically indicating the air turbulence 
around them. When the boat heads too far off 
the wind for the set of the jib, the leeward 
streamer will begin to twirl. 

For most vessels, there is an area of two to five 
degrees of heading where the sail trim is good 
enough so the woolies will stream evenly. As a 
general rule, the leeward wooly can be seen 
through the sail fabric, at least in sunlight, but 
many people have their sailmaker put a small, 
clear plastic window in the sail where the key jib 
wooly — about one-third the length of the luff 
up from the deck — is located. 

Having trimmed the jib for maximum effi¬ 
ciency, one can then proceed to do the same with 
the mainsail. On most boats, it should be possi¬ 
ble to trim each sail till both are drawing prop¬ 
erly, but on some modern boats with very large 
jibs, when the foresail is properly trimmed, the 
air will flow off its leeward side with such velo¬ 
city that it will interfere with the mainsail, 
causing mild luffing. There is usually no good 
solution to this problem, but in many cases, the 
jib is so much more effective in moving the boat 
upwind that it really doesn’t seem to matter. 

When sailing to windward, the fact of ever- 
changing wind direction becomes quite ap¬ 
parent. Although in many parts of our country 
the prevailing summer breeze seems to blow 
from the same direction for days at a time, in 
fact its actual direction will shift constantly a 
few degrees to either side of its general direc¬ 
tion. These shifts aren’t noticeable to most 
people, but to sailors trying to urge their craft to 
windward, they can be crucial, as we shall see in 
Chapter Three. Called playing the puffs, the 
helmsperson’s technique of responding with the 
tiller to each slight wind shift can make a dra¬ 
matic difference to a boat’s progress over a rea¬ 
sonable distance. 


Close 

Hauled 



2-17 Points of Sailing 


Points of Sailing — Reaching 

A boat may be said to be sailing close-hauled 
within perhaps five degrees of its optimum 
windward course. Likewise, a boat is running 
when the wind is anywhere within a 10- or 15- 
degree arc dead astern. That’s a total of perhaps 
25° in the total 270° a boat may head at a given 
moment. The remaining 245° consists of 
various types of reaching, from almost-beating 
all the way around to almost-running. 

Almost-beating is known as close reaching. 
The wind’s action on the sails is much as it is 
when sailing close-hauled — most of the force 
moving the boat is lift, with perhaps a little 
more push than when beating. Close reaching is 
slightly faster than beating — because of the 
extra push — and there’s a slight degree of extra 
flexibility, too. Because the boat is not already 
sailing as close to the wind as it can, the person 
steering may head into the wind a trifle (called 
heading up, as opposed to turning away from 
the wind, which is heading off), trimming the 
sheets in as the boat turns. 

Use of the woolies is just about the same as 
in beating, and they should be just as helpful. 
As the boat’s bow is turned farther away from 


2-8 

















HOW A BOAT SAILS 


the wind, she approaches a beam reach, which 
occurs when the apparent wind is blowing over 
the boat at more or less right angles. A beam 
reach combines excellent lift over the leeward 
side of the sail with good thrust on the wind¬ 
ward side. For this reason, beam reaching is 
usually a boat’s fastest point of sailing. As. we 
shall see in Chapter Three, it also offers maxi¬ 
mum maneuverability and is probably the safest 
point of sailing for the beginner. 

Beam reaching, the woolies should still be 
reasonably effective, at least the ones on the lee¬ 
ward side of the sail. If in doubt, try the old trick 
of letting the sails out till they begin to luff just a 
little, then trimming them back in till the luffing 
stops, then trimming them a hair more. This 
rule-of-thumb system should leave you with the 
woolies reacting effectively. 

As the wind moves aft from a beam reach, one 
is said to be on a broad reach. Probably the 
woolies will cease to be effective, as the force 
moving the boat is mostly thrust from astern, 
with just a little lift remaining over the leeward 
side of the sail. Broad reaching is safe, reason¬ 
ably fast in any kind of wind, and quite exhil¬ 
arating. The only common mistake new sailors 
make is to fail to let the sails out far enough. 
Trimmed in, the sails seem to be catching more 
wind; the boat heels and appears to be roaring 
along. In fact, however, easing (letting out) the 


sheets a bit may bring the boat back up on her 
feet, and while she may not appear to be going as 
fast, she will really be moving more swiftly. The 
proper way to trim sails for broad reaching is the 
luff-and-let-out system described above. A 
speedometer will help you determine if your 
boat is moving at her best, but instruments like 
this are expensive and fragile, and their use is 
largely restricted to bigger boats. 

The differences between beating, close reach¬ 
ing, broad reaching and running or the three 
types of reach are not instantly apparent, nor do 
they matter a great deal in practice. The im¬ 
portant thing to learn is proper sail trim for each 
heading, and for this the concepts of beating, 
reaching and running are useful. 

Perhaps the best way to test sail trim is to get 
another boat identical to yours and sail the same 
courses, with each skipper varying sail trim, one 
at a time. The most effective trim for every 
major heading will soon become apparent, and 
it will soon become second nature. Another 
good way to learn sail trim is to sail with some¬ 
one who knows your kind of boat. Don’t be 
afraid to ask him or her questions about what’s 
the best practice. Most sailors are only too eager 
to impart what they know, and your only prob¬ 
lem may be absorbing more information than 
you really need. 


2-9 


















































































Chapter 3 


Basic Sailboat Maneuvering 


So far, we’ve considered the three major 
points of sailing — close hauled, reaching and 
running — and the subdivisions of reaching, but 
without any thought as to which side of the sails 
the wind may be striking. In a modern fore-and- 
aft rigged boat, in which the sails at rest lie along 
the boat’s centerline, the wind can, of course, 
blow on either side of most sails. When the 
breeze is coming over a boat’s starboard side, so 
that the main boom is extended out to port, we 
say the boat is sailing on starboard tack. When 
the opposite is true, and the wind is coming over 
the boat’s port side, she is said to be on port 
tack. 

Identification of Tack 

A boat is always on one tack or the other, 
even when running directly before the wind: In 
that case, we use the position of the main boom 
to determine tack; if the boom is extended to 
port, the boat is on starboard tack and vice 
versa. We assume for identification purposes 
that the wind is striking the boat on the side op¬ 
posite to that on which the boom is extended. 

Thus any description of how a boat is sailing 
at the moment includes both point of sailing and 
tack: “We were close hauled on starboard tack,” 
for instance, or “reaching on port tack.” It’s 
important to know which tack your boat or any 
other in sight may be on. The legal question of 
which of two sailboats has right of way in a pos¬ 


sible collision situation is largely determined by 
who is on what tack (See Rules of the Road, 
Chapter 6). 

Aside from the legal question, however, the 
concept of port and starboard tack is a useful 
one to understand. In Chapter Two, we showed 
how most sailboats could at any moment sail a 
heading on any of 270° of a 360° circle. Only the 
two 45° segments on either side of the wind’s eye 
are not sailable by the average boat. A little 
thought will reveal that a boat can then sail 



3-1 Starboard vs Port Tack 


3-1 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



headings equal to only 135° without taking the 
wind on the opposite side of the boat. 

If, for instance, a boat is running on star¬ 
board tack, with the main boom fully extended 
to port, and she changes course only slightly to 
bring the wind to the port quarter, the main 
boom will swing across the boat to the star¬ 
board side, and the vessel is now on port tack. 

By the same token, if a boat is sailing fast and 
well while close hauled on port tack, and the 
skipper steers her through the wind’s eye, she 
will soon be heading at about 90° to her pre¬ 
vious course, and the sails will fill from the other 
side. She will be on starboard tack, close hauled 
again. 

The two paragraphs above describe in a nut¬ 
shell the two basic sailing maneuvers, jibing and 
tacking (also called coming about), both of 
which result from the need to change tacks from 
time to time. Because tacking is generally 
admitted to be the more important of the two 
maneuvers, let’s examine it in detail first. 

Tacking (Coming About) 

Tacking can be defined as moving the boat’s 
bow through the wind’s eye from close hauled 
on one tack to close hauled on the other. 
Coming about means exactly the same thing as 
tacking. 

It’s obvious that during the tacking maneu¬ 
ver, the sails will not be drawing or helping the 
boat to move. They will in fact be causing drag 


as the boat continues to move forward while 
turning. It’s important, therefore, to make the 
tacking maneuver as quick as possible, to retain 
the boat’s momentum. At the same time, if the 



3-2 











BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 


rudder is too far over, it acts as a brake, which 
also cuts down on the boat’s forward speed. 
Thus, a well-executed tack is a proper compro¬ 
mise between a turn that’s too slow, causing air 
drag, and one that’s too abrupt, causing water 
drag. 

Let’s run through a tack to see how it works in 
practice. We’ll assume that we have a small boat 
with a mainsail and a jib, handled by a crew of 
two. One of the two is the skipper, and for con¬ 
venience’s sake we normally assume that the 
skipper is whoever’s steering at the moment. 
The important thing, in any case, is to make sure 
that there’s only one skipper. You can discuss a 
sailboat maneuver before you do it or after¬ 
ward, but never during the action itself. To do so 
is just asking for trouble. 

The skipper decides when to tack. The reason 
may be a wind shift (that is, a change in direc¬ 
tion), another boat in your way, or simply the 
desire to turn. Having decided to come about, 
the skipper says, “Ready about.” This is short 
for “Get ready to come about.” Each crewmem¬ 
ber has a job to do in getting ready. The skipper 
must be sure the boat is moving at a good, 
steady speed; he or she must also be ready to re¬ 
lease the main sheet if necessary (it shouldn’t be, 
but the skipper should be prepared); the crew 
normally handles the jib sheet. He or she must 
uncleat but not release the cleated end of the 
sheet so it’s ready to let go. 

When the skipper sees everything’s in hand, 
he or she calls out, “Hard alee.” At the same 
time, the tiller is put over to leeward — away 
from the direction the wind is coming from, 
called windward. In steering by wheel the direc¬ 
tion in which to turn it may differ, according as 
the wheel is “right” or “left-handed”. The 
desired effect is that of pushing the boat’s stern 
to leeward, and, consequently, the bow swings 
into the wind. 

The maneuver should be swift enough so the 
boat is still moving easily ahead as she turns. As 
the bow comes up more and more into the wind, 
the sails will begin to flutter, or luff — first the 
jib, then the main. As soon as the jib luffs, but 
not before, the crew should release the sheet he 
or she is holding and grasp the other one, taking 



in the slack, but not forcing the sail to set on the 
other side of the boat. 

Normally, the mainsheet may remain cleated 
as the boat comes about. The sheet made fast to 
the boom only allows the spar to swing across 
the cockpit, so the mainsail doesn’t need to be 
tended. The jib sheet, on the other hand, is 
usually double, with the ends running to cleats 
at each side of the cockpit. To make the jib set 
on the opposite side of the boat, the other half of 
the jib sheet has to be taken in and cleated. 
(Some jibs, by the way, have a boom — the club 
or jib-boom — and sheet like the mainsail; these 
jibs are known as self-tending sails because they 
sheet themselves properly on the opposite tack.) 

As the bow swings into the eye of the wind, 
the sails will luff straight down the boat’s cen¬ 
terline. Then, as the bow continues its turn, the 
sails will begin to fill out on the other side. As 
the jib luffs over the deck, the crew takes in the 
sheet on that side, until the sail begins to stop 
luffing and draw. It’s not necessary to work the 
mainsheet — the mainsail will usually fill and 
adjust itself. 
















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


When the boat has made a complete turn of 
90° from its original heading, the sails should 
both be filled in approximately the same posi¬ 
tion on the new tack that they were on the old. 
The boat now settles down and begins to gain 
speed. 


Skillful Tacking 

There are some small tricks to skillful tacking. 
To begin with, as already noted, the skipper 
should put the tiller only as far over as is 
necessary to turn smoothly and fast, without un¬ 
necessary braking. This amount of helm will 
depend on the boat, and you can only discover it 
by practice. Generally speaking, a heavy, 
narrow keel boat has more momentum and re¬ 
quires less tiller action than does a light, wide 
centerboard-type hull, which loses speed dra¬ 
matically as it comes into the wind. 

In the course of tacking, the crew should 
avoid pulling the jib across onto the other side of 
the boat prematurely. Doing so only causes the 
sail to backwind — to take the breeze on its for¬ 
ward side, braking the boat’s forward motion 
and turning the bow back to the old tack. The 



3-5 Premature Backwinding 


True 



crew should, when possible, simply allow the jib 
to come across the boat, easing out the old part 
of the sheet and taking in the slack of the other 
part, so there’s no great amount of loose line 
flapping on the foredeck, with the consequent 
likelihood of its getting tangled. 

While most boats do tack through 85-95 
degrees, remember the effect of apparent wind, 
noted in Chapter Two: Just before tacking, with 
the boat moving well close hauled, the apparent 
wind will probably be about 20° off the bow. 
When the tack is completed, and the boat has 
begun to move off on the new heading, the ap¬ 
parent wind will probably be more like 40° off 
the other side of the bow. As the boat gains 
speed, the apparent wind direction will move 
forward, and the sails must be trimmed, as de¬ 
scribed in Chapter Two, to match the apparent 
wind direction of the moment. 

This means that the crew will normally not 
trim the jib in as far on the new tack as it was 
trimmed in on the old. Then as the boat regains 
its speed, the jib will have to come in a little, to 
account for the changing wind direction. Gen¬ 
erally speaking, however, the mainsail is left 
alone during this part of the maneuver as the 
boom will probably swing over by itself; the 
crew will have been warned by the skipper’s 
“hard alee” to avoid being struck by the swing¬ 
ing boom. 


3-4 








BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 



3-7 Avoiding Irons by Falling Off 


Being in Irons 

It sometimes happens, especially in small, 
light boats, that a vessel will get halfway 
through a tack and stall with the bow facing 
directly into the wind. This is called being in 
irons, and it happens to everyone from time to 
time. It usually happens because the boat wasn’t 
moving fast enough when the tack was begun, or 
because the skipper tried to tack from a reaching 
point of sailing, without edging up to close 
hauled first. Sometimes you can get into irons 
on a very windy day if a wave slaps your bow as 
you’re turning the boat, and stops you cold. 
Sometimes when there’s very little wind, the 
boat will simply not tack at all. 

To avoid getting into irons, make sure — 
especially while you’re still not familiar with the 
boat — that you’re moving fast and smoothly 
before trying to tack. Many skippers will fall off 
— deliberately head the bow away from the 
wind five degrees or so — and pick up a bit of 
extra speed before coming about. 

On very windy days, when there are steep, 
short waves, put the helm over more abruptly 
than usual, and a bit farther. The idea is to get 
the bow through the wind’s eye, wind blowing 


directly against bow, even at a sacrifice of 
forward speed, before the boat’s forward 
momentum is stopped by wind or wave. 

Conversely, on very calm days, put the helm 
over gently, not quite so much as usual, and let 
the boat ease through the turn. In this case, 
you’re trying to maintain all the momentum you 
can, at some cost in turning speed. 

Most boats will come about from a close 
reach, but many cannot do it from a beam reach, 
even if the sails are trimmed in during the turn. 
Better to trim the sails in slowly, while heading 
up to a proper close hauled heading, then make 
your tack from there. 

Every boat tacks slightly differently from 
every other boat, and learning how to handle a 
new craft is just a matter of time and practice. A 
top skipper will spend an hour or two tacking 
and tacking again in a new boat, till he or she has 
the maneuver down pat and knows just what to 
expect. 

But even top skippers can make a mistake. 
Sooner or later you’ll be in the embarrassing 
position of finding yourself stalled — dead in 
the water, with the sails luffing helplessly down 
the boat’s centerline. In irons. 


3-5 











SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Swinging Broadside 



Back The Jib 


Boardboat or Catboat 
Back Mainsail 



Getting Out of Irons 

Getting out of irons isn’t particularly dif¬ 
ficult. How you do it depends on what kind of 
boat you have. Here are several methods you 
can try to see which works best for you. 

First, if yours is a light boat, just release the 
sheets, pull up the centerboard (if there is one), 
and wait. In a short time, the boat should swing 
around broadside to the wind, with the sails 
luffing out to leeward. Sheet in the sails and sail 
off. 

Next, you can back the jib. Have the crew 
hold the jib clew out to one side of the boat, 
while you (the skipper) put the tiller over to the 
opposite side. Your boat will slip backward, and 
her stern will swing in the same direction the jib 
is extended, while the bow turns the other way. 
Once you’re beam to the wind, you can straight¬ 
en the tiller, sheet in both sails normally, and sail 
off. 

On a boat with no jib, such as a boardboat or 
small dinghy, you can back the mainsail in the 
same manner. This may cause the boat to move 
straight backward, until you put the tiller over. 
Small catamarans will often begin to sail in 
reverse almost immediately after getting into 
irons. Just wait for the boat to pick up a knot or 
so of speed, then put the tiller over, while letting 
the sheet run. 


There are only a couple of things to keep in 
mind when getting out of irons. First, before 
taking action, consider which direction you’ll 
want to be heading after you get out of irons. If 
you back the jib, the bow will wind up headed in 
the opposite direction, but the stern will slide 
toward the side the jib is backed. Plan ahead. 

In heavy winds, be cautious, as the boat 
comes beam-on to the breeze, about sheeting in. 
If you take the sheet in too quickly, the sudden 
wind pressure may spill the boat before it can get 
going. Better to sheet in just enough to let the 



3-6 

































































BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 


boat gain headway, then complete the sheeting 
operation when you’re moving well. 

Generally speaking, the heavier the boat, the 
more positive action will be required to get out 
of irons. As keel boats are normally heavier 
than centerboard boats of the same length, 
they’ll need the jib backed and rudder hard over 
to get out of irons, while a centerboard boat may 
respond to rudder action alone. This is another 
of the things you’ll have to learn about how your 
boat reacts. 

Jibing 

Recall our definition of tacking: moving the 
boat’s bow through the eye of the wind. Jibing, 
pronounced Jybe-ing, occurs when you move 
the stern through the eye of the wind, in order to 
bring the breeze onto the other side of the sail. 
(Some purists may call this maneuver wearing, 
but it doesn’t matter.) 

The jibe is the downwind equivalent of tack¬ 
ing. Sometimes a wind change may be such that 
continuing along the tack you’re on will mean 
you’ll have to steer a course that’s less direct 
than you’d like. Many smaller boats sail much 
faster on a broad reach than on a run, so they 
“tack downwind,” using a series of jibes, first to 
one side, then to the other, and actually arrive 
where they’re going faster than if they had sailed 
the straight-line course. 

The essential difference between tacking and 
jibing is the wind direction relative to the sail. 
When you tack, the wind blows across the luff, 
the controlled edge of the sail; when you jibe, the 
wind hits the leech, the free side of the sail. Thus, 
when you’re tacking,the sail flutters across the 
boat with no wind filling it until you sheet in. 
When you jibe, on the other hand, the sail 
always has wind filling it, except for the split- 
second when it’s halfway across. 

This means that jibing is potentially a less 
controlled, more violent maneuver than tack¬ 
ing. This does not mean you should be afraid to 
jibe your boat — a good sailor uses tack or jibe 
with equal confidence, according to what the 
maneuvering situation calls for. Until you can 
do the same, you’re not handling your boat well. 


Jibing may require a bit more maneuvering 
room than tacking, especially when jibing a 
small boat in a stiff breeze. This, too, is a ques¬ 
tion of control, and while a tack is a very pre¬ 
dictable evolution, a fast jibe may result in a 
sudden burst of speed or a moment’s out-of¬ 
control stagger. Allow enough room to cope. 



The actual operation is very simple; let’s 
assume the same kind of small sloop we had 
when discussing tacking, with a crew of two. To 
jibe, of course, you’ll need first to put the boat 
on a run. If you’re running wing-and-wing, jib 


3-7 





SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


set on opposite side to main, with a whisker pole 
extending the jib, remove the pole and stow it 
out of the way. The jib may or may not fill. 
Forget it. The sail which gets your principal con¬ 
sideration is the main. 

The boat is now running, main boom fully 
extended. The skipper calls out, “Stand by to 
jibe,” or words to that effect. The crew may 
handle the mainsheet or the skipper may hold it; 
that’s something each crew must decide for 
themselves. In any case, the sheet handler takes 
in the mainsheet until the boom is nearly 
amidships, hardened in about as far as it will go. 
Now the skipper puts the tiller over, as always in 
the direction away from that in which he wants 
to go. When jibing, the tiller is put over away 
from the boom. 

As he or she puts the tiller over, the skipper 
calls out, “Jibe-oh,” or “Jibing.” The boat’s 
stern begins to swing into the wind, and a 
moment later the main boom will move across, 
its speed depending largely on the strength of 
the wind. In steering by wheel the direction 
turned may differ according as the wheel is 
“right” or “left-handed”. The desired effect is of 
pushing the boat’s stern through the wind’s eye. 

As this happens, the crew lets the mainsheet 
run, but keeps some tension on it. This can be 
accomplished by running the line under the 
horn of a cleat, for friction, or simply employ¬ 
ing hand pressure. Let the sheet out in a con¬ 
trolled run, as the boat is still turning, then grad¬ 
ually increase resistance until the sheet is stop¬ 
ped with the boom short of hitting the lee 
shrouds. Straighten out on the new course. It’s 
as simple as that. 

In light winds, it won’t be necessary to harden 
in very much before jibing, and in very light 
zephyrs, the crew may have to push the boom 
across by hand. 

Uncontrolled Jibe 

The important aspect of jibing is control: 
never allow the boom to swing across without 
controlling the sheet. In a brisk wind, aboard a 
small boat, the jar of boom’s hitting shrouds can 
snap a wire, bend the boom or capsize the boat. 
If your boat has a single backstay, the boom can 
swing up as it moves across out of control and 


snag on the backstay, with obvious possibilities, 
none good. 

If your hands are tender, by all means wear 
gloves when handling sheets. Some sailors 
prefer fingerless mitts (it’s the palms that need 
protection) made of chamois or some similar 
material. Others buy cheap cotton painters’ 
gloves in the hardware store. 

Remember that we mentioned one of the 
dangers of running as being the problem of 
knowing true wind strength? When heading 
downwind, your boat’s speed is subtracted from 
the true wind strength, and the apparent wind 
you feel may be very much less than the true 
wind, which may slam the boom across with 
quite a crash, if you’re not ready for it. 

And watch your heads! The boom doesn’t 
shout a warning as it comes across the cockpit, 
and more than one sailor has incurred a painful 
or even serious whack on the head from an 
unannounced jibe. 



3-11 Uncontrolled Jibe 


3-8 









BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 


Sailing a Course 

Any boat moving from point to point over the 
water can be said to be sailing a course. Much of 
the time nothing more is involved than heading 
directly toward the desired objective, but fre¬ 
quently, and especially in sailboats, things are 
somewhat more complicated. 

If, for instance, the objective is directly 
upwind of a sailboat, it obviously is impossible 
to sail directly to it. The way to work a sailboat 
to windward involves a series of tacks, so that 
the boat zigzags its way to its ultimate destina¬ 
tion. When it’s necessary to sail a set of tacks to a 
windward mark, it’s usually a good idea to 
choose a mark that is within sight. If the 
destination itself is out of range, then interme¬ 
diate marks may be chosen, preferably ones that 
appear on nautical charts of the area (see 
Chapter 12). 



3-12 Sailing a Course Upwind 


about this question. Time spent tacking is, to be 
sure, time lost, and on the face of it, the same 
distance covered in many short tacks should 
take longer than a few long tacks. At the same 
time, however, it is easier to keep track of one’s 
direction and position when short-tacking than 
when long tacks may take the boat well away 
from the base course. Finally, really skillful 
windward sailing involves being responsive — 
thus tacking — whenever a wind shift makes this 
advantageous, and that in itself implies fre¬ 
quent tacks. 

If, for example, one is tacking toward a mark 
directly upwind, and the boat is on starboard 
tack, suppose the wind shifts 10° to port. This 
means that, to hold the same course relative to 
the wind while remaining on starboard tack, the 
boat will have to head 10° off the most direct 
zigzag. But if one tacks over to port, it will be 




3-13 Wind Shift 

possible to sail 10° closer than the former best 
zigzag. A wind change in one’s favor is known as 
a lift, since it enables you to sail closer to the 
wind than anticipated. The opposite kind of 
wind shift is a header, since it heads you off from 
the course you’d planned. 

Running downwind, as noted earlier in this 
chapter, it may frequently pay to head off the 
direct course to benefit from a considerable gain 


Leaving aside the navigational aspect, the 
tactics of sailing an upwind course involve 
deciding whether to sail long or short tacks to 
either side of the base course — the straight-line 
course to the objective. Authorities are divided 


3-9 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


in speed reaching as opposed to running. The 
boat type and the wind strength will have a great 
deal to do with deciding whether this tactic is a 
good one in a given set of circumstances. Racing 
sailors frequently carry inexpensive plastic slide 
rules that read out the advantages and disad¬ 
vantages of tacking downwind, revealing how 
much faster one must sail to make up the extra 
distance of an indirect course. 

Normally, the way to change direction when 
running is to jibe, but sometimes, especially in 
rough weather, a controlled jibe may be rather 



\ 

\ 


3-14 Running Down Wind In Heavy Weather 



tricky, and the skipper may elect to sail a series 
of broad reaching headings, coming about each 
time the course is changed. This tactic keeps the 
wind relatively safely on the quarter, where a 
sudden wind shift is not likely to cause an 
unexpected jibe. 

When tacking from a broad reach, it’s usually 
necessary to come up toward the wind slowly 
until the boat is sailing a very close reach, with 
the sails properly trimmed, then come about. 
Instead of settling down on the opposite close 
reach, simply keep the boat coming around until 
the new downwind course is reached. It’s a safe 
and only moderately inefficient way to handle a 
boat in heavy winds and seas. 

A boat beating to windward or sailing a close 
reach makes a certain amount of leeway — the 
sideways slippage caused by wind pressure, 
which hull design cannot cancel out. The 
maximum amount of leeway under sail would 
be made by a centerboard boat close hauled, 
with the board fully raised. Try this with your 
own boat or a friend’s. Put her on a close hauled 
heading with the board down, sailing right at 


3-10 





















BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 


Falling 

Short 


Fetched 




\ 



\ \ ^ 




y 


/ 




make close hauled, close reaching and beam 
reaching, with the board all the way down, 
halfway down and fully raised. After a while, 
this kind of calculation becomes instinctive, but 
it takes practice. 

When sailing toward a windward mark, the 
final tack is the crucial one. If you find yourself, 
following this tack, heading straight for your 
goal (allowing for leeway), then you have 
fetched the mark. If, after you’ve come about, 
you find you don’t have to sail a close hauled 
course to make your target, you’ve overstood 
and should have tacked sooner. Far more 
common, however, is the problem of falling 
short, when one tacks too soon for the final leg, 
and then finds that another tack will be re¬ 
quired. 


3-16 Fetching The Mark 

some mark. Even better, try to line up a range — 
two marks in line. Sail toward it and see how 
your boat slides gently off to leeward. Now line 
up the marks again and try the same thing with 
the board all the way up. The difference will be 
dramatic. 

Every skipper should have a pretty accurate 
idea of the amount of leeway his or her boat will 


The temptation is to come about as soon as 
the mark is at 90° to your present heading. 
Theoretically, that should put you on a course 
directly toward it. In fact, however, once leeway 
enters the equation you’ll find you will fall short. 
In addition, knowing exactly when the mark is 
at 90°, or directly abeam, is very tricky. More 
often than not, wishful thinking will cause you 
to tack too soon. Better to hold on another 30 
seconds and overstand a bit. 



3-17 Hiking Out 













SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



3-18 Sail Area Exposed During Heel 

Stability and Angle of Heel 

A sailboat normally heels in response to wind 
pressure, and we have seen (Chapter One) how 
the degree of heeling is partly controlled by hull 
shape and partly by ballast in the keel, if any. 
The third factor of importance, at least in smal¬ 
ler craft, is the disposition of crew weight. Even 
in a stiff wind, a small boat that’s dramatically 
heeled can be brought level by the crew hiking 
out to windward. In older boats, hiking meant 
sprawling along the windward gunwale, but in 
most up-to-date craft, hiking straps are built in. 
The crew puts his or her feet under the straps; 
with one’s seat on the gunwale, this allows the 
entire upper body to project out to windward as 
a living counterbalance. On some high- 
performance boats, the crew stands on the 
windward gunwale, seat supported by a trapeze 
hung from the masthead, and arches back to 
windward. This is the most effective use of 
human ballast possible, but it’s not for begin¬ 
ners. 

There are times when a boat should heel and 
times it shouldn’t, and the degree of heel is also a 
variable. Within limits, heeling is a safety factor. 
When a sudden gust of wind strikes a boat’s 
sails, and the boat heels, not only does the 
heeling action absorb some of the wind’s force 


(which would otherwise damage the rig), but the 
sails of a heeled boat present considerably less 
wind resistance than those of an upright craft. 





3-19 Use of The Trapeze 


On days of very light breeze, there may not be 
enough wind to make the sails assume a proper 
airfoil shape. The cloth just hangs there. But by 
heeling the boat five degrees or so, the sails may 
be induced to sag into the proper curve. In this 
case, heeling is induced by the crew sitting on the 
leeward, not the windward, side of the boat. 

On some boats with long overhangs at bow 
and stern, heeling can effectively extend the 
length of the waterline. This means that the 
boat’s potential speed, which is related to water¬ 
line length (Chapter One) is somewhat in¬ 
creased. 


3-12 









BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 



3-20 Crew’s Weight Shifted to Lee Side in Faint 
Breeze (Induced Sag) 


Some sailboats can be slightly heeled to lee¬ 
ward in faint breezes to reduce the amount of 
hull surface in contact with the water, and thus 
lessen the friction impeding the boat’s move¬ 
ment. 

Some boats have a more effective underwater 
shape when slightly heeled, but this is generally 






3-21 Waterline Changes by Heeling 

true of older crafts. Today’s high-performance 
daysailers are almost always at their best when 
sailed flat or very nearly so. In almost no case is 
a boat’s performance going to improve beyond 
20° of heel, and in most boats performance will 
deteriorate badly from 25° or so on. 


3-13 































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




3-22 Surface Area of Hard Chine Hull 


Stability in boats is a complicated matter of 
concern to naval architects. The amateur sailor 
needs only to know some basic characteristics of 
various kinds of hulls. Boats have two kinds of 
stability: initial and ultimate. Initial stability is 
a boat’s tendency to resist heeling at all. 
Ultimate stability is the boat’s ability to resist 
capsize. 

Round bottom keel boats have relatively little 
initial stability. They heel easily — but only to a 
point. Once the counterbalancing effect of the 
ballast keel is felt, a round bottom boat will be 
very hard to heel any further. It has good 
ultimate stability. 

Almost the opposite is true of hard chine 
centerboard boats. Their hull shape resists easy 
heeling, and they are very steady at first. But 
once there’s enough heeling force to heel the 
boat more than a few degrees, the initial stability 
suddenly begins to lessen, until at some point it’s 
easier for the hull to keep going over than to 
right itself. This is a matter of good initial 
stability and poor ultimate stability. 


* 


i 





3-23 Catamaran 

The most extreme case is that of the multihull 
— a catamaran with two hulls or a trimaran 
with three. Because of hull shape, these boats 
have tremendous initial stability, and a cata¬ 
maran will seldom heel more than five degrees 
or a trimaran more than 10. But once the wind¬ 
ward hull of a catamaran leaves the water, sta¬ 
bility is on the point of evaporating and a “cat,” 
once capsized, will tend to turn completely 
upside-down. A trimaran is more initially 
stable, but again, if sufficient force is applied to 
flip her, she will settle in a completely upside- 


3-14 










BASIC SAILBOAT MANEUVERING 



down position. Both cats and tris are normally 
without ballast and have daggerboards, so there 
is no counterbalancing weight to bring them 
back up. 

Each type of hull has its advantages and 
drawbacks. There is no “perfect” hull for all 
conditions, and in choosing a boat one must aim 
for that compromise between stability and other 
attributes (such as speed or maneuverability) 
that one’s sailing area demands. 


3-24 Trimaran 


3-15 









































„ 










































Chapter 4 


Rigging and Boat Handling 


As anchorages become more crowded and 
marinas more costly, sailors have turned in 
increasing numbers to trailering their sailboats 
(See Chapter 10). Even if you keep your boat at 
a pier or mooring, it may be helpful for you to 
know how to set up the rigging from scratch — a 
task well within the capabilities of most skippers 
of boats under about 25 feet in length. 

Stepping the Mast 

The difficulty of setting up the mast depends 
on two things: The size and weight of the spar 
itself, and the manner in which it’s stepped in the 
boat. In our introductory chapter on parts of a 
boat we considered the simplest kind of step, in 



4-1 Stepping the Mast 


which the mast foot fits into or around a socket 
grounded on the boat’s keel. Such a mast may 
first lead through a brace at gunwale level — 
either a hole in the deck or a seat. 



4-2 Mast Step on a Hinge 


On larger boats, such as small, trailerable 
cruisers, the mast may step on deck in a hinged 
fitting which allows it to be raised and lowered 
quite easily. In principle, stepping the mast in 
either case is much the same and should offer no 
problems if a few, orderly steps are followed. 


4-1 














SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


First, select the location for mast stepping. If 
yours is a small boat without floorboards, or 
one in which the hull is thin enough so it flexes 
under your weight, then the boat has to be 
launched first. Make sure she is tied securely to 
float or pier, so she won’t shift under you as you 
step aboard with the spar on your shoulder. If 
you step the mast while the boat is still on its 
trailer, as many do, first check to be sure that 
there are no overhead wires either near you or 
between you and the launch ramp. A small but 
significant number of sailors have been elec¬ 
trocuted in recent years when their metal spars 
or standing rigging came in contact with unin¬ 
sulated wiring. 



4-3 Mast on Horses 


If you haven’t done so already, tie off the 
stays, shrouds and halyards against the mast. 
The easiest way to do this is first to set the spar 
on two or three sawhorses for support. No tie 
should be higher up the mast than you can reach 
when the spar is stepped, for obvious reasons. 



4-4 “Walking” the Mast Up 


For masts that are deck-stepped in a hinged 
fitting, you may now place the mast foot in the 
hinge and secure it. If there’s no way to secure 
the foot, or if the spar must first be guided 
through a deck hole, at least two people will be 
required to step even a rather small mast — one 
to locate the foot and the other to raise the spar. 

Walk slowly and carefully forward, watching 
where you put your feet, and raise the mast to 
the vertical. At this point, one person will have 
to steady the mast (unless the deck-level support 
is enough to hold it upright) while another 
quickly makes fast the key pieces of standing 
rigging. These are the fore-and backstays and 
the upper shrouds, both port and starboard. 
Once these turnbuckles are attached to the 
proper chainplates and taken up enough to hold 
the mast reasonably steady, then it’s no longer 
necessary for anyone to hold the spar erect. 



4-5 Mast Stepped 


Make fast the remaining shrouds to their 
chainplates and be sure the halyards are free to 
run without being tangled in the rigging or the 
mast hardware. Although actual tuning of the 
standing rigging is a matter of trial and error, 
initial tensioning is no great problem. The wire 
running to the masthead, whether it be shrouds 
or stays, should be quite taut — enough so that 
it vibrates when plucked — while wire that runs 
partway up the mast should be tight enough so it 
doesn’t flap to and fro, but should not have 
serious tension on it. Once you’re sailing, you’ll 
know soon enough if your turnbuckles need 
adjusting, so for the moment don’t overdo. 


4-2 
















































RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-6 Mast Rake 


What’s important is to have the mast standing 
straight in the boat. Sight over the bow to make 
sure the spar isn’t tipped to one side or the other, 
and from the side to determine that the amount 
of fore-and-aft tilt, known as rake, is proper. On 
most boats, the mast is designed to rake aft 
slightly — two to five degrees at most. If yours is 
a class or production boat, other skippers or the 
manufacturer’s literature will tell you the 
amount of rake that works best. Lacking this 
information, try a slight tilt aft — enough so 
that the halyard, allowed to swing free, will 
touch the deck about six inches aft of the mast 
step for a 20-foot spar. 

With the mast in place, you can attach the 
boom to the gooseneck track or fixed fitting, 
whichever your boat is equipped with. Attach 
the mainsheet to boom and deck fittings, mak¬ 
ing sure the line is free to run through its blocks. 
If your boat has a topping lift, a light line or wire 
running from the masthead to the outer end of 
the boom, make it fast to hold the boom off the 
deck. 

Now set up the rudder and tiller, if they’re not 
already attached. On small boardboats having a 
rope or wire horse, a bridle under which the 



4-7 Rudder and Tiller - Note Hiking Stick 


tiller fits, be certain that the tiller is in fact under 
the horse. If the fittings on rudder and boat 
transom allow, the rudder should be locked in 
so it cannot float free. If you have a tilt-up 
rudder and the boat is not yet launched, be sure 
that the rudder is in the “up” position. Many 
boats with heavy centerboards are trailered with 
the board resting on a crossbeam of the trailer, 
so as to take the strain off the centerboard 
pennant. Before launching, check to make sure 
the board is fully retracted and the pennant tied 
off. Otherwise, the board will almost certainly 
jam in the trailer frame and make it impossible 
to launch the boat. Once afloat, however, the 
centerboard or daggerboard should be fully 
lowered. 



4-8 Tilt-Up Rudders 


4-3 




























4-9 Bending On Main - Feeding Foot into Boom Track 


Making Sail 

Before attaching the sails to the spars and 
forestay, head the boat more or less into the 
wind so that the sails, once hoisted, will luff 
freely. Ideally, a boat should be swinging free at 
a mooring when making sail, but in many cases 
you’ll be at a pier or float where you line up only 
generally into the wind. 

Work with the mainsail first. Usually, you’ll 
have to take the sail out of the bag and find the 
clew — the lower aft corner, as you remember. 
Arrange the sail so the foot, from clew to tack, is 
untwisted and feed the sail onto (or into, 
depending on the attachments) the boom track, 
pulling the foot along the boom until the clew 
can be made fast to the outhaul. Next, make the 
tack cringle fast to the gooseneck fitting, and 
pull the outhaul toward the outer end of the 
boom until the sail’s foot is taut. 


Insert the battens in the batten pockets. Old- 
fashioned pockets had small grommets at the 
outer end, corresponding to a hole in the end of 
the batten. A light line secured the batten in its 
pocket. Nowadays, however, most sailmakers 
use the tvoe of pocket illustrated, which holds 
the batten in place without tying. Battens should 
fit snugly into the pockets that hold them, but 
not so tightly that they stretch the fabric. 
Remember that the thinned-down end of a 
wood batten goes into the pocket first. It might 
seem that just the opposite would be true, but 
consider that a batten’s job is to support the 
roach of the sail and to impart an even curve, 
hence the more easily bendable thin edge should 
be further forward in the sail, where the 
curvature is greater. 

If your mainsail luff is fitted with slides (for an 


4-4 









RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-10 Inserting Batten in Sail 4-11 Detail of Batten and Sail Pocket 


exterior track) or slugs (for a recessed track), 
you can slide these onto or into the track. 
There’s nearly always a gate fitting at the 
bottom of the track so you can keep the slides or 


slugs in place, once attached. If, however, you 
have a mainsail with a roped luff, you won’t be 
able to slide this into the mast groove until you 
are actually ready to make sail. 



4-5 































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



Attached with Bowline 







0 



4-14 Sail’s Head Cringle - 
Attached with Shackle 


Last, make the halyard fast to the sail’s head 
cringle. Most halyards have a shackle or other 
piece of hardware for this purpose, but it’s really 
not necessary. A type of knot called a bowline 
will serve just as well. Before making fast the 
halyard, sight up along it to make sure that it 
isn’t twisted or snagged. 

If your boat has only a mainsail, you’re now 
ready to hoist it and go. But we’re assuming that 
your boat has a sloop rig and you have yet to 
deal with the jib. (In practice, one crewmember 
will attach the main while the other handles the 
jib.) Bundle the mainsail loosely atop the boom 
(see how to do it below) and wrap it in place with 
a couple of sail stops — lengths of sail fabric or 
rubberized shock cord (the latter is recom¬ 
mended) that are carried for just this purpose. 

Generally speaking, you can attach the jib to 
the forestay right from the sail bag, if you’ve 
taken the precaution to fold and bag the sail so 
that its tack cringle is right on top. Shackle or 4-15 Main Bundled Loosely on Boom 




4-6 














RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-16 Making Jib - Attaching Tack to Stem 


snap the tack in place, then work up the luff of 
the jib snap by snap to the head. As you do so, it 
may help to run the luff through your hands to 
keep the edge from being twisted in the process 
of attachment. When you’re done, check that 
all the jib snap jaws are facing the same way. 
Virtually all American sailmakers sew on jib 
snaps so their openings face to port. • 

When you get to the sail’s head, make fast the 
jib halyard, using the same procedure as with 
the main. 

The jib sheets are another story. Remember 
that they’re nearly always double, with half the 
sheet running to one side of the cockpit and the 
other half to the other side. How you attach the 
sheets is an open question, and here are the 
methods among which you can choose. 

Splicing — a splice is a permanent way of 
making an eye at the end of a line or attaching 
two lines together. It will never, when properly 
done, work free, no matter how briskly the sail 
luffs or flutters. A good splice is not heavy, so 



4-17 Bending On Jib - Hanking On 



4-18 Jib Sheets - Spliced on to Jib Clew 


two of them won’t weigh down a corner of the 
sail. On the other hand, a splice can’t be undone, 
so if you have more than one jib, you’ll need 
more than one set of jib sheets, which is a 
nuisance as well as being expensive. 


4-7 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



4-19 Jib Sheets - Bent on with Bowline 


Tying — there’s no reason you can’t tie each 
part of the jib sheet to the jib clew cringle, using 
a bowline. This good knot is easy to tie, once 
you get the hang of it, and is also easy to untie. 
Normally, it will not shake itself loose except if 
badly tied and repeatedly shaken. A bowline is, 
however, a fairly large and clumsy knot, and 
two of them will weigh down the jib clew in light 
breezes, as well as offering potential snags when 
tacking. 



4-20 Jib Sheets - Bent on with Fisherman’s Bend 



4-21 Jib Sheets - Attached with Snap Shackle 


Snapshackles — for those who prefer or 
require a quick release, the snap shackle, into 
whose ring both parts of the jib sheet are spliced, 
is often the answer. Stainless steel or bronze 
snapshackles are relatively light and streamlin¬ 
ed, but they are also expensive. And although 
they have been carefully engineered so as not to 
pop open, still they do so from time to time, and 
it can be very difficult to capture the wildly 
flapping clew of a big jib on a windy day. In 
addition, the hardware can be dangerous or 
damaging even if it doesn’t snap open. More 
than a few sailors have received bloody noses 
from being whacked across the face by an un¬ 
tamed shackle. 

When hoisting sail, a double-check of three 
things is recommended. First, be sure the boat is 
facing as nearly into the wind as possible. 
Second, check again before putting tension on a 
halyard to see that it’s free and untangled. And 
third, be sure that main or jib sheets are ready to 
run free, so the sail won’t hold any puff of breeze 
it may catch, and start your boat sailing before 
you’re xeady. 


4-8 








RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-22 Main Halyard Coiled and Stowed on Cleat 


Raise the mainsail first, hoisting it quickly 
and smoothly. If your boat has a sliding 
gooseneck, release the downhaul line, allowing 
the sail to be raised all the way to the top of the 
track. On some smaller boats, there may be a 
halyard lock which will engage, holding the sail 
fully raised. On most boats, you’ll have to tie off 


the halyard on a cleat. Now put tension on the 
downhaul until the sail’s luff is approximately as 
taut as the foot and secure the downhaul line. 

For rigs without a downhaul, you will have to 
raise the sail and put tension along the luff by 
pulling on the halyard. In most cases where this 
type of rig is fitted, there’s a mainsail halyard 
winch fitted to the starboard side of the mast, 
and by taking four or five turns of the halyard 
wire around the winch drum, then turning the 
winch, you can increase tension on the mainsail 
luff. When the sail shows vertical creases along 
the luff, it’s properly taut. 



4-23 Coiled Halyard Stowed Between 
Halyard and Mast 


The tail of the halyard — a length of line 
about equal to the height of the mast — now 
must be coiled and stowed where it cannot get 
free, but where it can be freed and released on a 
moment’s notice. There are several ways of coil¬ 
ing and stowing a halyard. 


4-9 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



With the mainsail raised, it’s now time to raise 
the jib, having gone through the same three 
checks of boat direction, halyards and sheets. 
On nearly all boats, the jib luff should be as taut 
as you can get it, but not tauter than the forestay 
itself. Boats over about 16 or 17 feet usually 
have a jib halyard winch mounted on the port 
side of the mast, but few craft have jib tack 
downhauls because of the difficulty of fitting 
such a piece of gear so close to the deck. 
Remember which side of the mast each halyard 
runs down — starboard for the main and port 
for the jib. This is a universal tradition, so that if 
you go aboard a strange boat you can assume 
with confidence that the halyard on the port side 
of the mainmast raises the jib, and vice-versa. 

If a boat flies more than one jib at a time, both 
headsail halyards lead down to port; and if she is 
gaff-rigged, the two mainsail halyards — peak 
and throat — both lead to starboard. 

With the jib fully raised, check the sheet leads. 
In order for the sail to set properly when filled 
with wind, the jib sheet should lead to the block 
or non-turning fairlead on deck. Many boats 
have a length of jib sheet track on either side of 
the deck, so the position of the jib sheet lead can 


be varied. Most jibs are cut with a miter seam 
running from the clew to a point along the luff. 
The correct sheet lead is usually a little below an 
extension of the miter seam. 

Once you’re away from mooring or pier (see 
below), put the boat on a close-hauled heading 
on either tack. Now sight up the mast from the 
side and from forward, to make sure it’s 
straight. If there’s a bend or hook in it, use the 
turnbuckles on the appropriate shrouds or stays 
to straighten it out, but work slowly. 

If the head of the mast is hooked to 
windward, try tightening the windward lowers; 
if it’s hooked to leeward, tighten the windward 
upper shroud. When the masthead hooks 
forward, chances are you’ll want to tighten the 
backstay. 

Having got the mast straight on one tack, 
come about and repeat the process on the other. 
You may have to run several tacks before you 
have the rig properly adjusted, but once you’ve 
accomplished this, a dab of paint at the proper 
spot on the turnbuckle will show how far it 
should be turned next time. 


4-10 
























RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-26 Mast Bowed to Leeward 


With the shrouds and stays at the correct 
adjustment, insert the cotter pins through the 
threaded stems and tape the turnbuckles with 
waterproof tape (available at any store hand¬ 
ling sailing gear) so that the bent-over pins can’t 
snag or tear the sails. Some skippers use inex- 



4-27 Mast Bowed to Windward 




4-29 Turnbuckle with Cotter Pins 

Turned in to Prevent Sail Damage 


























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




pensive plastic tubing instead of tape. It can be 
employed over and over, but it’s another thing 
to remember when hooking up the turnbuckles. 

When returning from a sail, head into the 
wind before dropping sail, then do it in reverse 
order of raising the sails. Lower the jib first, then 
the main. To drop a sail, first capsize the halyard 
coil on deck — turn it upside-down so it’s free to 
run when uncleated. One crewmember should 
tend the halyard to make sure the end doesn’t 
snake up the mast out of reach,or to prevent a 
snag. 


mm 


4-30 Turnbuckle with Ring Clips 
in Lieu of Cotter Pins 


4-31 Chafing Gear — Plastic Tubing 
Over Turnbuckles 


4-32 Stuffing Jib in Bag 


4-12 







RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-33 Folding the Jib 



4-34 Rolling Jib for Bagging 


The jib may be simply stuffed into its bag with 
the tack fitting accessible at the top. If you’re in 
a hurry, it won’t do the sail much harm. It’s 
better practice, however, to take the sail ashore 
and lay it out flat. Now flake it from foot to head 
as shown and then loosely roll the flaked sail 
before bagging for overnight or longer. This will 
prevent wrinkles in the sail fabric and, more 
importantly, will keep the artificial fibers from 
cracking as they may if the sail is jammed 
forcibly into its bag. 



4-35 Dropping the Main 


The mainsail, too, should be folded and 
bagged (after the battens are removed, of 
course) in the same manner as the jib. On many 
larger boats, however, the main is furled on the 
boom and left there under a sail cover. This is 
quite acceptable and should do the sail no harm, 
provided that you first remove the battens, slack 
off the outhaul, and then furl the sail properly. 

This is easy enough to do. As the sail is 
lowered, try to drop it slightly to one side of the 
boom. After detaching and securing the 
halyard, pull a large flake of sail out from the 
foot to form a semi-bag. Now flake out the rest 


4-13 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



4-36 Furling — Dropping the Main 
and Rolling on Boom 

of the main within this fold. Roll it tightly on top 
of the boom in a smooth, sausage-shaped form. 
Secure it in place with shock cord sail ties — 



4-37 Furling — Main Stowed on Boom 

three should be enough for the average length 
boom, and it’s always a good idea to have one 
extra. 




Sailing Away 

The most important part of getting a sailboat 
under way is planning ahead. And conversely, 
the easiest way to get into trouble is to leap 


before you look. Let’s assume that our boat is 
swinging at a mooring buoy (See Chapter 7) in 
an anchorage. This is close to the ideal situation, 
as the boat can (at least in theory) sail off on any 


4-14 










































RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 


heading permitted by the wind direction. As a 
matter of practicality, of course, this is seldom 
true. One must take into account other boats, 
both anchored and moving, structures like piers 
and aids to navigation, water depth, and the 
shape of the harbor itself. 

The wise skipper will also consider that what 
he or she is planning may not come off. If 
counting on sailing off in one direction and then 
tacking quickly to a new heading, bear in mind 
that this crucial first maneuver may be where 
your boat finds herself in irons. Or an unseen 
boat or swimmer may suddenly appear from 
behind another vessel, throwing off your 
calculations. 

Here are some important things to remember 
in getting under way: 

1. A sailboat cannot be steered until the sails 
are drawing and it’s moving; therefore, only 
the lightest craft will be able to maneuver as 
soon as they cast off, or when the line holding 
them to mooring buoy or pier is released. 



CURRENT 


4-39 Current Vs Wind 


2. When casting off from a buoy, your boat will 
be effectively in irons — headed into the wind 
with the sails luffing. So your first tactics will 
be the same as those noted in the previous 
chapter for getting out of irons. 

3. Remember to allow the boat to fall back 
from its mooring buoy a few feet before 
backing the jib, especially in a quick, 
lightweight boat. Otherwise you run the risk 
of taking off and overrunning the buoy or 
snagging the mooring line (which is usually 
permanently attached to the buoy). 

4. Plan on sailing off on a beam or close reach if 
possible, as you’ll then have the greatest 
maneuverability. If the harbor is very crowd¬ 
ed, however, don’t be ashamed to paddle out 
to open water before making sail. Every 
small sailboat should have a pair of paddles 
(See Chapter 11) and larger craft should have 
a motor. 

As a general rule, when at a mooring your 
boat will automatically point into the wind. At 
the same time, however, the current, which is the 
horizontal movement of the water (See Chapter 
12), may be carrying your boat in a different 
direction. With small sailboats, the effect of 



CURRENT 


4-40 Using Current to Cast Off 


4-15 
























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


wind overrides that of current; where the 
current is strong and the wind light, and when 
the boat in question is a deep-keel type, the 
current may have more effect than the wind, 
even to the point of forcing the boat to ride 
stern-first to the breeze. 

In this case, there are two tactics you can 
choose between. First, you can lead the mooring 
line around to the stern, allowing the boat to 
swing end for end so her bow is again into the 
wind, then make sail and head off in the normal 
way, except that you’ll drift forward instead of 
backward after casting off. Second, you can 
hoist only the jib and let it stream out over the 
bow. Cast off, sheet in the jib, and sail 
downwind until you are clear of the anchorage 
area, then head up into the wind and raise the 
mainsail. Most boats will sail reasonably well 
under either the jib or the mainsail, and many 
skippers use only one sail when the wind is 
strong (See Chapter 5). 

Sailing away from a pier should not be too 
difficult as long as there’s one edge of the 
structure that lines up more or less into the 
wind. If possible, lay your boat along an axis of 
pier or float so that the hull is in a closehauled 
position relative to the breeze before you cast 
off. Release the bow line first, let the bow swing 
away, then cast off the stern line. Now harden in 
(pull in the sheets) and sail off. 



4-41 Leaving a Pier-Wind Ahead 



4-42 Sailing Off the Beach - 

Carrying Boat to Water’s Edge 



4-43 Sailing Off the Beach - 

Shoving Off to Deeper Water 



4-44 Sailing Off the Beach - 
Sailing Through the Surf 


4-16 














































RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 


If no side of the pier offers you a sailaway 
position, you’ll just have to paddle or motor out 
to clear water before raising sail. It may be 
annoying, but it’s a lot less embarrassing than 
being pinned helplessly against the float with 
your sails raised and no way to get off. 

Sailing off a beach, one crewmember will 
usually have to stand about waist-deep in the 
water holding the boat in place until all is ready 
for sailing. Unless your boat is extremely 
maneuverable, don’t try to stay a bit drier by 
sailing out of shallow water with the center- 
board raised. When setting out from a standstill, 
the centerboard should be completely lowered. 

Heading back to beach, pier or mooring is 
just the reverse of sailing away, with a few 
necessary exceptions. As always, the first item 
of importance is to plan the approach. 



4-45 Approaching a Buoy 

Coming into an anchorage, the best tactics 
call for retaining as much maneuverability as 
you can, consistent with reduced speed in case 
something does go wrong. Until you are very 
familiar with your anchorage, it may help to sail 
up to your buoy a few times from different 
directions, without trying to pick it up. This will 
not only provide good information on the best 
paths among the other anchored boats, but it 
will also make you think in terms of what to do 
should you sail up to the mooring and miss 
picking it up — something that happens to the 
best sailors sooner or later. 


If the spacing of other boats allows, try to 
approach the mooring buoy on a close reach. 
Thus, you have good speed and good maneu¬ 
verability. Make your approach — other con¬ 
ditions permitting — on whichever tack will 
allow you to fall away from the wind safely if 
you miss the buoy. You probably won’t have 
enough momentum left to come about, but you 
should, by the time you know whether you’ll 
make the buoy or not, have speed enough to 
head the bow away from the wind. 

If your boat will handle reasonably well under 
mainsail alone, it’s often a good idea to drop, 
remove and bag the jib before making your final 
approach to the buoy. This procedure will give 
you far better visibility forward in a critical 
couple of moments, and it will provide an un¬ 
obstructed foredeck for the crewmember who 
must grab the mooring line or buoy: Not only is 
a Dacron or nylon sail very slippery underfoot, 
but it can also get muddied or torn if used for a 
carpet while mooring. 

Your centerboard should be fully lowered for 
maximum maneuverability when making the 
final approach. At some point between one and 
three boat lengths from the mooring, head right 
into the wind and coast up to the buoy with the 
sail luffing and the sheet (or sheets) uncleated. 
Ideally, the boat should stop dead in the water 
with the mooring buoy in easy reach. 

It sounds hard, but you may be surprised at 
how easy it becomes once you’re used to your 
boat and familiar with her carry, the amount of 
distance she requires to lose momentum when 
headed into the wind from a close-hauled 
course. In addition, you can fudge a little just 
before the final approach, slacking the sheets 
and letting the sail luff if you’re moving too fast, 
or heading off to gain a little speed. 

What is tricky, however, is getting the moor¬ 
ing line aboard and made fast before the boat 
begins to move off in a new direction. Unlike an 
automobile, a boat won’t stand still while you 
figure out a new approach to that parking spot. 
If you miss the mooring, you’ve got to be ready 
to do something else right away, and usually the 
safest tactic is simply to sail right clear, get your 
crew and gear sorted out, and start over from 


4-17 

















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




Main 

Dropped 




CURRENT 


4-46 Mooring with Jib Alone 

scratch. Trying to make a missed approach into 
a good one almost never works, and you’re far 
better off to sail clear while you have the 
momentum and the room, then try again. 



Centerboard Lower 

Boat Centerboard 


Luff Starts as 
Boat Heads Up 


— 0 - 

Dr °P Sailing 


Close-Hauled 


Jib Keel 

Boat ^ 

Drop"jib^^3 


4-47 Mooring with Main Alone 


These remarks have been predicated on the 
usual mooring conditions, in which the wind 
direction is the dominant factor. As in leaving a 
mooring, it may sometimes be that the current is 
against the wind and stronger in its effects on the 
boat. When this happens, you may have to sail 
downwind to the mooring, in which case it may 
be easier to do so under jib alone, especially if 
that sail is smaller than the main. 

Sailing to a pier involves much the same 
problem as coming up to a mooring, with the 
drawbacks being that only three sides of the 
pier, at most, will be accessible. Also, a pier or 
even a float is much more likely to damage a 
boat in case of collision than is a buoy. For 
relative beginners to sailing, it’s probably not a 
good idea to sail into a slip or up to a pier unless 
the final shot can be made almost directly into 
the wind. When the pier is downwind, it’s far 
safer to lower sail offshore and paddle in. 



4-48 Approaching a Pier 


When sailing to a pier, someone aboard the 
boat must be ready to fend off. In small boats up 
to 16 feet or so, it’s practical to sit on deck and 
fend off with your feet — which should have 
boat shoes on them. Don’t try to stop the boat’s 
momentum with an arm or a leg while standing 
up. And if the boat is a large one, fend off with a 
fender — it will absorb much more shock than 
you can, and do it better, and in any case it’s 
much more seamanlike to sacrifice a piece of 
gear than to risk injuring a crewmember. 


4-18 
























RIGGING AND BOAT HANDLING 



4-49 Causes of Wind Shift in a Harbor 


Sailing in a crowded harbor, be ready for 
sudden wind shifts which may be caused by 
large buildings ashore, high piers or even 
anchored boats. As in the case of approaching 
an unfamiliar anchorage, it often pays to sail 
close by your intended pier without committing 
yourself to the final approach, then return (if all 
is well) for the actual maneuver. Many small 
boats are advertised as being capable of being 
sailed “right up on the beach.” With some of 
them, this may be true, but for most, a beaching 
at speed is an invitation to a wrenched rudder, a 
broken centerboard, or perhaps personal injury. 
Providing surf conditions will allow, it is far 
better to sail in close to the beach until the water 
is about waist-deep, then round up into the wind 
while one crew member goes overboard to hold 
a line attached to the bow. The person going 
over the side should be wearing a PFD (Per¬ 
sonal Flotation Device) and sneakers and 
should know how to swim in case the water is 
deeper than waist-high. 

If you must sail onto the beach, do so only 
when you have a very accurate idea of how 


steeply the shore shelves. Pull the centerboard 
or daggerboard all the way up (don’t expect it to 
pop up by itself), and be prepared to flip up the 
rudder the instant before the boat touches 
shore, or the second you feel the rudder blade 
touch bottom, whichever is first. 

All maneuvers with a small boat require 
practice to perfect. A boat’s behavior in a five- 
knot wind may change considerably when the 
same boat is facing 10- or 15-knot breezes. One 
of the best ways to practice approaches to 
moorings or piers is to use an inflated air 
mattress or a plastic detergent bottle anchored 
to the bottom and practice making landings 
alongside from every possible sailing direction. 
With a full afternoon’s experience in hand, 
you’ll be far more confident and rightly so. And 
don’t forget to change places with your crew 
from time to time. Not only will you have a 
happier and more satisfied sailing companion if 
you share the tiller, but you’ll also have a 
crewmember who knows much better what the 
skipper’s problems are — just as you’ll better 
appreciate what the crew can and cannot do. 


4-19 


























































































































































































Chapter 5 


Weather Forecasting 
and Heavy Weather Sailing 


Boating people are, as a group, directly con¬ 
cerned with weather, and sailors have a special 
need to know about sea and wind conditions. 
Although many sailors tend to regard wind as 
synonymous with weather, the former is only 
one aspect of the latter, which also includes 
heat, pressure and moisture, all affecting the 
condition of the atmosphere. This chapter will 
deal with the essentials of sailors’ weather on 
two levels, local and systemic; we will then con¬ 
sider some of the tactics to know and use when 
sailing in heavy weather. The information here 
won’t make you a meteorologist or a Cape Horn 
skipper, but it should help, with practice, in 
making you able to tell what weather to expect 
and how to deal with it when it turns nasty. 


What Makes Weather Work? 

All weather takes place within the shallow 
envelope of gas we call the atmosphere. And all 
weather change is brought about by rise or fall 
of temperature. For the sailor, there are two 
kinds of weather — evidenced mostly in terms of 
wind — that he must deal with. The most 
immediate is local weather; specifically, how the 
local wind patterns operate and how to make 
best use of them. Intruding upon these local 
conditions is the larger effect of weather 


systems, which may cover many thousands of 
square miles. 

In very simplified terms, the large-scale move¬ 
ment of air around the earth is caused by air 
becoming heated from contact with the earth (or 
sea) near the Equator, then rising and diffusing 



5-1 Basic Wind Patterns 

itself around the globe while colder air from 
north and south replaces it. If the earth didn’t 
spin, air circulation around it would be much 


5-1 




















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



simpler. Because of the earth’s rotation, 
the basic wind patterns are as shown, with 
prevailing winds that are generally quite 
reliable. In the continental United States, most 
of which is located between Latitudes 30° and 
60° North, the prevailing winds are from the 
west — a fact that influences not only sailing 
habits, but also marina and harbor layouts. 
Although the majority of winds across our 
country blow from a generally westerly direc¬ 
tion, there are many days when this isn’t the 
case. Seasonal changes, differences in heat 
distribution over water and land, geographic 
features, uneven local heating — all contribute 
to making weather the unpredictable thing it is. 
In the United States, the position of the Polar 
Front, the boundary between the polar 
easterlies and our prevailing westerlies, normal¬ 
ly lies around 60° North. But when the cold 
polar air moves south, violent weather is 
sometimes the result. 

Another major cause of weather change is the 
Rocky Mountains, which cause the air moving 
off the Pacific Ocean to change many of its 
characteristics as it crosses them. 

Air Masses and Fronts 

The variables cited above cause huge air 
masses to come into being. There are two kinds 
— high-pressure masses, called highs, and low- 
pressure areas, known as lows. Each has its own 
characteristic behavior. 

Highs are formed when air (for any of several 
reasons) cools, becomes more compressed, and 


consequently sinks. In the northern hemisphere 
the circulation of air is clockwise around a high 
and the wind directions are both clockwise and 
outward from the high’s center, as shown in the 
diagram. High pressure areas may cover im¬ 
mense stretches of the earth’s surface — half the 
United States, under certain conditions — but 
they are usually a few hundred miles in 
diameter. Highs originating in the polar area 
move south and east. Fair weather is generally 
characteristic of a high, as are light winds and 
steady temperatures. 



5-3 Air Circulation - Clockwise Around 

Highs Counter Clockwise Around Lows 
in the Northern Hemisphere 


Low pressure areas, in most respects, are the 
opposite of highs. A low’s center is constantly 
being filled with air moving into it in a generally 
counterclockwise direction (in the northern 
hemisphere). Winds are strong, but lows, like 
highs, generally move from west to east across 
our continent. 

There are, however, semi-permanent high 
and low pressure areas. Off the West Coast of 
the United States is the Pacific High, somewhat 
larger in summer than in winter, and the Azores 
High, over the Atlantic, shows the same sea¬ 
sonal changes in size. In winter, a low fre¬ 
quently exists in the Aleutians, while in sum¬ 
mer there is a low that extends from northeast 
Africa all the way to Indochina. The semi¬ 
permanent highs form largely over water, when 
the sea is cooler than the land. 


5-2 





WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 


\ 


Localized low pressure areas may also form 
under a thundercloud formation, where air is 
rising with great speed, or over very hot areas 
into which the cooler air flows as the heated air 
is elevated. 

It can be useful to know where a low pressure 
area is in relation to you, since lows are usually 
the source of bad sailing weather. In the 
northern hemisphere, stand with your back to 


originates in the north. But each may be further 
defined as continental — having formed over 
land — or maritime, having formed over the sea. 

The air masses that affect us are: 

Continental Polar (cP) — cold and dry 

Maritime Polar (mP) — cold or warm, but 
moist 

Maritime Tropical (mT) — warm and moist 


Present 
Surface Wind 



5-4 Buys-Ballot’s Law for Determining Low 
Pressure Area 


the present wind; turn 45° or so to the right. This 
aligns you with the existing wind aloft, which 
blows in a somewhat different direction than the 
breeze at ground level. Under normal circum¬ 
stances, where the true wind is not affected by 
highly localized conditions, the high pressure 
center is now to your right, the low center to 
your left. The pressure area to the west of you is, 
generally speaking, the one that will reach you, 
while weather to the east has already passed. 

Besides highs and lows, it is useful to consider 
the great air masses, bodies of air in which 
conditions of temperature and moisture are the 
same or similar from one side to the other. Air 
masses take their names from their 
characteristics, and the masses which cross our 
country can be very different. 

Although air masses change somewhat ac¬ 
cording to the surfaces they cross, they remain 
essentially the same. In the United States, there 
are two origins of such masses, called Tropical 
and Polar. Obviously the former type comes 
from southern latitudes, while the latter 


Cumulonimbus 

r 

<v_ 

Cumulus & 
sCumulonimbus 

Cold Air^ Warm Air 



5-5 Collision of Cold and Warm Fronts 
Results in Bad Weather for the Sailor 


Fronts form when air masses of different 
characteristics collide — the front being the 
barrier between two such masses. The front 
takes its name from the type of air which is 
arriving. That is, when an eastward-moving 
mass of cold air catches up with warm air, also 
moving east but not so quickly, a cold front is 
formed. Cold air, being more compact and 
heavier, pushes under the warm air mass and 
lifts it. This lifting causes unsettled or stormy 
weather along the front. The same thing 
happens with warm fronts, but in this case the 
warm air rides up and over the cold, and the 
storms which accompany a warm front are not 
so severe as those characteristic of a cold front. 
In either case, however, the weather along the 
front is not good. 

It’s very useful to know the normal sequence 
of weather as a front passes through. Although 
the time of passage will vary, it’s possible to 
predict the weather sequence with considerable 
accuracy. 


5-3 
















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Cold fronts move at speeds from 10 to 50 
knots, depending on the time of year — they are 
two or three times as fast in winter as in summer. 
If a cold front is moving fast, it may be preceded 
by a squall line, a roll of black; threatening 
clouds that may reach heights of 40,000 feet, 
with violent storms and even tornadoes. Wind 
shifts along the front will be sudden and 
velocities will increase dramatically. Behind the 
squall line are heavy rains, followed by clearing. 

Ahead of the usual cold front about 150 miles 
are high sheets of Altocumulus cloud, followed 
by lowering, thickening Nimbostratus, a low 
cloud with rain and wind. The barometer falls, 
sometimes very fast, and the wind becomes 
gusty. As the actual front passes overhead, the 
winds increase and the barometer drops; then as 
the barometer hits bottom, the wind direction 
shifts abruptly clockwise, continuing gusty, and 
the barometer begins to rise quickly as the 
temperature falls. 

A cold front is normally followed by some 
heavy rain, then clearing and gusty winds from 
west or northwest. At least a couple of days of 
clear, cool weather, often with excellent sailing 
winds, are in prospect. 

The warm front is a different creature. Its 
cloud warnings — high, thin Cirrus — extend as 
much as 1,000 miles ahead, clouds representing 
warm air that has climbed up and over the 
retreating cold air mass. As the front advances 
(and it may take two days to arrive), clouds 
thicken and lower. The barometer starts a 
steady fall and the winds pick up. High-level 
Cirrostratus clouds become Mid-level Alto- 

i 

stratus and rain or snow begins to fall, contin¬ 
uing until after the front passes. As this occurs, 
the winds shift clockwise and decrease. The tem¬ 
perature begins to rise and visibility is often 
poor. Behind the front is some Stratus and per¬ 
haps a little more rain. The barometer may rise 
and then fall slightly. After the front has com¬ 
pletely passed, the skies will clear and winds will 
normally be from the southwest. Unfortunate¬ 
ly, cold fronts frequently follow hard on the 
heels of warm fronts, so the duration of good 
weather may be short. 


Cirrus 




5-7 Cumulonimbus Clouds - Note Anvil 
Shaped Cirroform Cap 


One of the most useful tools in weather 
forecasting is the barometer, which measures 
the degree of air pressure at the instrument. As 
with any type of weather measurement, a single 
observation is of little use. A sequence of meas¬ 
urements will reveal a trend — most of the time. 


5-4 
















WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 


Wind 

Direction 

Sea-Level 

Pressure 

Forecast 

SW to NW 

30.10 to 30.20 
and steady 

Fair, with little 
temperature change, 
for 1 to 2 days. 

SW to NW 

30.10 to 30.20 
rising rapidly 

Fair, followed within 2 
days by rain. 

SW to NW 

30.20 or 
higher and 
steady 

Continued fair with lit¬ 
tle temperature 
change. 

SW to NW 

30.20 or 
higher; falling 
slowly 

Fair for 2 days with 
slowly rising 

temperature. 

S to SE 

30.10 to 30.20; 
falling slowly 

Rain within 24 hours. 

S to SE 

30.10 to 30.20; 
falling rapidly 

Increasing winds and 
rain within 12 to 24 
hours. 

SE to NE 

30.10 to 30.20; 
falling slowly 

Increasing winds and 
rain within 12 to 18 
hours. 

SE to NE 

30.10 to 30.20; 
falling rapidly 

Increasing winds and 
rain within 12 hours. 

SE to NE 

30.00 or 
below; falling 
slowly 

Rain will continue 1 to 

3 days, perhaps even 
longer. 

SE to NE 

30.00 or 
below; falling 
rapidly 

Rain with high winds 
in a few hours. Clear¬ 
ing within 36 hours- 
becoming colder in 
winter. 


Wind 

Direction 

Sea-Level 

Pressure 

Forecast 

E to NE 

30.10 or 

higher; falling slowly 

In summer, with light 
winds, ram may not 
fall for 2 to 3 days. In 
winter, rain within 24 
hours. 

E to NE 

30.10 or 

higher; falling rapidly 

In summer, rain 
probably within 12 to 

24 hours. In winter, 
rain or snow within 12 
hours and increasing 
winds. 

S to SW 

30.00 or 

below; rising slowly 

Clearing within a few 
hours. Then fair for 
several days. 

S to E 

29.80 or 

below; falling rapidly 

Severe storm within a 
few hours. Then clear¬ 
ing within 24 hours- 
followed by colder in 
winter. 

E to N 

29.80 or 

below; falling rapidly 

Severe storm (typical 
nor’easter) in a few 
hours. Heavy rains or 
snowstorm. Followed 
by a cold wave in 
winter. 

Hauling 
to W 

29.80 or 

below; rising rapidly 

End of the storm. 
Followed by clearing 
and colder. 

NOTE: Falling or rising rapidly means a pressure change 
of .24 inches or greater within three hours. 
Falling or rising slowly means a change of 
approximately .09 inches or less in a three-hour 
period. 


5-8 Wind/Barometer Table (Eastern United States) 


On this page is a table correlating wind direction 
and barometric tendency. With it and little else 
you can sometimes forecast local weather with 
tolerable accuracy. Other weather indicators are 


more subjective, but can frequently aid you in 
predicting local weather patterns. Here are 
some that have proven quite accurate over many 
years, in some cases many centuries: 


5-5 



















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Indicators of Deteriorating Weather 

Clouds lowering and thickening 

Clouds increasing in number, moving fast 
across the sky 

Veils or sheets of gray cloud increasing on the 
western horizon 

Clouds moving in different directions at dif¬ 
ferent heights 

Clouds moving from east or northeast toward 
the south 

Barometer falling steadily or rapidly 

Static on AM radio 

Wind shifts from north to east and possibly 
through east to south 

Strong wind in the morning 

Temperatures far above or below normal for 
the time of year. 

Indicators of Strong Wind 

Light scud clouds alone in a clear sky 

Sharp, clearly-defined edges to clouds 

Yellow sunset 

Unusually bright stars. 

Indicators of Precipitation 

Distant objects seem to stand above the 
horizon 

Sounds are very clear and heard for great dis¬ 
tances 

Transparent, veil-like clouds thickening and 
lowering 

i 

Halo around sun or moon 

Increasing south wind, with clouds moving 
from the west 

Wind (especially north wind) shifts to west 
and then to south 

Steadily falling barometer 

Pale sunset 

Red sky at dawn 

No dew after a hot day. 



5-9 Stratocumulus Clouds - Rain Warning 


Indicators of Clearing Weather 

Cloud bases rise 

Wind shifts to west, especially from east 
through south 

Barometer rises quickly 

Gray early morning 

Morning fog or dew 

Indicators of Continuing Fair Weather 

Early morning fog that clears 

Gentle wind from west or northwest 
Barometer steady or rising slightly 
Red sunset 

Bright moon and light breeze 
Heavy dew or frost 
Clear blue morning sky 
Dull hearing, short range of sound. 


5-6 


WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 



Thunderstorms and Squalls 

The localized thundersquall is probably the 
one kind of weather most feared by experienced 
sailors. It need not be associated with major 
weather systems, as it can arise in a very short 
time, or it may lurk concealed in a hazy sky, and 
it can produce winds of shattering force. Add to 
that the fearful and often dangerous effect of 
lightning, and you have a natural demonstra¬ 
tion that should inspire respect in any seafarer. 


Causes of thunderstorms vary, but they are all 
characterized by a violent uplifting of air, 
sometimes to heights of 75,000 feet. There are 
usually three stages in the life cycle of an average 
thunderstorm. The early, or cumulus, stage 
occurs when a cumulus cloud — the detached, 
puffy cloud of summer fair weather — develops 
vertically from 15,000 to 25,000 feet. This means 
that the rising air currents within it may be 
cooled as much as 80° while ascending, to well 


below freezing at the cloud’s top. The air in the 
cloud is still warmer than the air outside. 



5-11 Scattered Cumulus Clouds - Good Weather 


5-7 

























































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



5-12 Warning Display Signals 


In the second stage, when the cloud reaches a 
height of approximately 40,000 feet, its full 
vertical development, precipitation occurs and 
falling rain or hail cools the air inside, creating 
downdrafts and heavy rains. In the terminal 
third stage, the entire cloud becomes sinking air. 
With no ascending air to be cooled, rain stops. 
At this point, the cloud at the top of the 
thunderhead has been blown into the familiar 
anvil shape — the sign of an aging storm. 

On most summer days, the cumulus clouds of 
afternoon have at least some potential for be¬ 
coming thunderheads. As long as the boater 
keeps an eye on them, he or she can usually 
make for safety long before there’s any danger. 
On the other hand, when visibility is limited by 
haze, as it sometimes is during ideal thunder¬ 
storm conditions, the formation of the tower¬ 
ing, sharp-edged cloud — called cumulonim¬ 
bus — typical of thunderstorms may be veiled 
by haze. 

On such hot, muggy, hazy afternoons, the 
skipper should be alert for static on AM (not 


FM) radios, the sound of distant thunder, or the 
flicker of lightning. He or she should stay close 
to port, as the wind may die shortly before the 
storm itself begins. 



5-13 Nimbostratus Clouds - Rain or Snow 


5-8 






































WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 




5-14 Stratus Clouds 
Overcast Sky 




5-9 














SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



5-16 Cirrostratus Clouds - Cause 
Sun and Moon Halo - Maybe 
Rain 


5-17 Squall Line - Heavy Wind, 
Rain and Thunderstorm 
Ahead 



5-10 











WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 


Weather Forecasts 

During the boating season, most commercial 
radio stations regularly broadcast marine 
weather forecasts — meteorological informa¬ 
tion especially prepared for boating people. 
This information is highly localized, in most 
cases, and is usually updated several times a day. 
You should know the schedules of marine 
weather forecasts on your local stations, and 
should make a habit of listening to them, 
beginning at least the night before you plan to 
set sail. 

In addition to the forecasts by regular com¬ 
mercial stations, there are also excellent weather 
reports available by phone from your local 
National Weather Service office, and the fre¬ 
quently updated Weather Service radio broad¬ 
casts on 162.55, 162.4 and 162.475 MHz on 
VHF-FM radios. These frequencies are nor¬ 
mally just above the commercial VHF-FM 
band, so they will probably not be included on 
ordinary FM sets. The three weather channels 
are, however, available on special receivers or as 
receive-only frequencies on marine VHF-FM 
radiotelephones. 

Whatever your source of weather informa¬ 
tion, you should make it a practice to secure an 
up-to-the-minute, marine weather forecast 
before setting sail even on a short hop across the 
harbor. 

Emergency Handling in Squalls 

Sooner or later, however, you’re going to find 
yourself and your boat caught out when the 
wind is stronger than you’d like it to be. In such 
a case remember that your boat was almost 
certainly built to take a great deal of punishment 
and she will come through, as long as you keep 
your head and use proper sailing technique. 
There are two kinds of bad weather to consider 
— the first is the sudden and unexpected squall, 
the second is heavy weather that you expect. 

Squalls can be unnerving simply because they 
give you little time to prepare. Even the fastest- 
moving squall line will nevertheless allow you 
the few minutes you need to get your boat in 


shape to handle it. And always remember that a 
fast-moving squall has one great virtue — it’s 
over in a hurry. Often a squall will last only a few 
minutes, seldom more than half an hour. 



5-18 PFDs - Personal Flotation Devices 

The first step when it becomes obvious that 
you’re likely to be caught by a squall long before 
you can reduce sail is to have all hands put on 
their Personal Flotation Devices, the Coast 
Guard’s technical term for what most people 
call lifejackets or lifevests (See Chapter Six). 
Not only should every crewmember have a 
lifesaving device of the proper size capable of 
supporting his or her weight, but everyone 
should wear it whenever there’s any threat of 
bad weather. A good PFD will give the 
crewmember confidence, will conserve body 
heat, and will absorb the bumps that happen in 
rough weather. 

The second step is to luff up into the wind and 
drop the sails and furl. A serious squall can pack 
winds up to 60 miles per hour, so don’t take 
chances. Until you know the strength of the ad¬ 
vancing storm, drop the sails and furl them se¬ 
curely. Drop the centerboard or daggerboard, if 
it isn’t already lowered. 

Secure all loose equipment, have a bailer or 
pump ready to operate, and tell the crew to keep 
their weight low in the boat. With these precau¬ 
tions you and your boat will be ready to deal 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


with whatever is likely to come. If you’re up¬ 
wind from a beach or shore, it would be well to 
put your anchor out and set it (See Chapter 
Seven), to avoid being blown ashore. 




If a squall moderates to where you can set sail, 
but the winds are still too strong to sail under 
main and jib, you can do one of several things. 
First and probably best is to reef your sails — 
reduce the area of the mainsail and/or jib. 



5-21 Mainsail Roller Reefing at the 
Gooseneck With the Hand Crank in 
Place 



5-22 Sailing With Roller Reefed Mainsail 


5-12 









































WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 


There are basically two ways of ac¬ 
complishing this on most modern sailboats. 
First is roller reefing, in which the boom is so 
designed that it can be rolled around its axis, 
with the sail tightly wound around it like an old- 
fashioned window shade. To roller reef a 
mainsail, put the boat on a close reach. Now 
ease the mainsheet just a little, so there’s wind in 
the sail but not the full force of the breeze. Now, 
while one person eases the main halyard, the 
other works the crank that turns the boom. 

Most roller reefing gear has the crank located 
at the forward end of the main boom, which 
usually means that one person can ease the hal¬ 
yard and turn the boom. In this case, the person 
at the helm should if possible grasp the mainsail 
leech and pull back, exerting a force parallel to 
the boom. This makes for a tighter, more even 
roll of sail. 


If you roll a deep enough reef in the sail so 
that the lower batten becomes twisted, remove it 
— a wood batten can easily break under this 
kind of treatment, and even a flexible plastic 
batten does the sail no good when it’s rolled up 
inside. 



5-23 Reef Grommets 



Some boats have a different form of reefing 
gear. Some sailors call it point reefing and other 
sailors call it jiffy reefing, but it is essentially the 
same operation. The boat is luffed up into the 
wind and the main dropped or partially low¬ 
ered. The crew now run lines through grom¬ 



5-24 Sailing With Mainsail Jiffy Reefed 

mets partway up the luff and leech (called the 
luff cringle and leech cringle) and then lash these 
lines tightly around the boom. In boats equip¬ 
ped with jiffy reefing, the luff cringle is secured 
to a hook welded to the gooseneck. The leech 
cringle reef line is also led through the outhaul, 
or a cheek block on the boom, to pull the clew of 
the sail both down to the boom and out along it. 


In point reefing, individual lines hang down 
both sides of the sail in a line from leech cringle 
to clew cringle. These reef points, as they are 
called, are used to lash the unused foot of the 
reefed sail in a neat roll along the boom. Unlike 
luff and leech cringle lines, the reef points do not 
lead under the boom, but only under the foot of 
the sail — thus, if the reef points are evenly tied 
(with reef knots — See Chapter Seven), the pull 
along the sail’s foot will be evenly transferred 
from slides to sail. 


5-13 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


A jiffy-reefed main, however, does not re¬ 
quire reef points, and the unused foot of the sail 
may be left to hang without any problem. Jiffy 
or point reefing may also be used on a jib 
equipped with a boom, but most jibs cannot be 
reefed, which is why modern racers carry a large 
assortment of them to match many possible 
wind conditions. Increasing numbers of racing 
boats are being equipped with jiffy reefing jibs, 
but their use is not yet general. Jibs may, 
however, be equipped with roller furling, which 
is quite different from roller reefing. 



5-25 Jib Being Roller Furled 


A roller-furled jib is one in which the luff wire 
turns around its own axis, like roller reefing 
around a boom. But because of the way 
curvature is cut into a jib, a partially roller- 
furled headsail will not set properly. Roller 


furling is, as the name says, a way of striking a 
sail entirely, not reducing its area partway. 
Since main and jib are usually balanced one 
against the other in terms of wind pressure, 
reefing the main usually entails switching to a 
smaller jib. 

It is possible to reduce sail in a hurry simply 
by striking one sail or another, and furling it 
tightly. Which sail you choose will depend on 
how your boat balances and what point of 
sailing you are on. 

In heavy weather, when you’re not too sure of 
yourself or the boat, it’s a good idea to put the 
boat on a reach first of all, before you attempt 
other points of sailing. A reach is not only the 
fastest point of sail, it’s usually the safest as well 
— the boat is relatively stable and can head up 
into the wind, spilling the breeze’s force from the 
sails, or head away as required, without chang¬ 
ing tacks. 



5-26 Full Jib - Mainsail Eased 


If both sails are up, try sailing first with a full 
jib and a mainsail eased slightly so that it begins 
to flutter or backwind along the luff. The sail 
will still be helping to move the boat, but the 
heeling force of the wind will be considerably 
eased. 


5-14 








WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 



5-27 Sailing Under Jib Alone 



5-28 Sailing Under Mainsail Alone 


Now try sailing under jib alone, with the main 
tightly furled around its boom and the boom 
carefully lashed to prevent its breaking free. In a 
case where the main and working jib are ap¬ 
proximately equal in size — the boat will prob¬ 
ably maneuver well under the jib by itself, and 
you will be spared the worry of dealing with a 
swinging main boom in heavy winds. 

On the other hand, boats with mainsails that 
are much larger than the jib will probably 
balance better if the main is left raised and the 
jib lowered, unsnapped and bagged (don’t leave 
it on the deck, even tied down — it may easily 
escape over the side to act as an unwanted drag). 

The only way to find which sail combina¬ 
tion works best for your boat is to take her out 
and try the several variations open to you. The 
important thing is to try, where possible, to keep 
the proportion of sail areas ahead of and aft of 
the mast approximately the same. As the wind 
gets stronger, the relative amount of sail area 
forward of the mast may increase — the boat 
will probably balance better for it, a fact which 
will be reflected in the amount of helm — the 
pull felt by the person holding the tiller. 

Most boats are designed to head up into the 
wind if the tiller or wheel is released. This is 
called weather helm, because the boat has a 
tendency, left alone, to swing up to weather, 
or windward. In mild amounts, weather helm is 
a safety factor, but in excess it can be both 
inefficient and tiring and over a period of time 
will weaken tiller handles and rudder fittings. 
The average modern sailboat is well balanced, 
but if you have problems with weather helm or 
its opposite, lee helm — the tendency for the 
boat to swing to leeward — See Chapter 9. 


Knockdown and Capsize 

When a boat is temporarily overpowered by 
the wind and heeled over till its mast is nearly 
level with the water, it is said to be knocked 
down. When a boat is laid over and has shipped 
so much water that it can’t right itself, it is cap¬ 
sized. Many of today’s small centerboard sail- 


5-15 









SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 






•i%iiii>liii ill* 


5-29 Beginning a Knock Down 

boats are designed to right themselves from a 
knockdown, even if there’s a substantial amount 
of water in the cockpit. You can aid the process 
by releasing the sheets and using your weight to 
bring the boat back up. 

In the case of a genuine capsize, especially 
with a non-self-righting boat, the situation may 
be more serious. Several steps should not only 


5-30 Capsized 

be followed by the skipper, but they should also 
be thoroughly drilled into the crew. 

1. Immediately after the capsize, count heads: 
Make sure all the crew have swum free from 
the boat. 

2. Stay with the boat as long as it is floating, 
and put on PFDs, if you haven’t already 





5-31 Righting a Small Boat - Climbing on the 
Center/Dagger Board 


5-32 Righting a Small Boat - Coming Up 


5-16 










WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 



5-33 Righting a Small Boat - Climbing Aboard 

done so. If you are in this situation you 
should have already insisted that the crew 
don PFD’s 

3. Recover the loose gear that will be floating 
around the boat. Stuff it into a sailbag and tie 
the sailbag to the boat. 

4. Get the sails down and off — at least down. 
This should allow the boat to come upright 
by itself. You may need to have some one 
help by pushing upward on the mast while 
you stand on the centerboard. 

5. Once the boat is upright, lower the center- 
board, plug the top of the centerboard trunk 
if it’s open and bail the boat. You may have 
to swim alongside and scoop water out until 
the level is low enough for one crewmember 
— the lightest — to ease aboard and Finish 
the job. 

If after a couple of tries you see that it will be 
impossible to empty the boat and sail away, 
don’t use up your energy and body heat by 
repeated attempts. Turn your attention to 
signaling for help. A horn sounded in repeated 
patterns of five blasts, a smoke signal by day or a 
flare by night, an International Orange distress 
flag — all are recognized signals of distress, and 


all can be purchased in any marine supply store 
and carried in a waterproof bag (most are sold 
that way) in even the smallest daysailer. Many 
skippers equip each PFD with a mouth 
operated whistle attached by about 10 inches of 
lanyard. 

If your boat must be towed home while full of 
water, make sure the towing vessel pulls your 
boat very slowly — two or three miles per hour, 
at the maximum. Not only are water-filled boats 
very unstable, but the water sloshing back and 
forth can easily gain such momentum it knocks 



5-34 Backing the bow Cleat with a 

Backing Block. If the Boat is Full of 
Water Have it Towed Very Slowly 


the transom out. Make sure your boat has an 
extra-strong cleat or eye bolt on the foredeck, 
one that is bolted through the deck and through 
a backing board beneath. This kind of hard¬ 
ware will stand the great stresses of towing. One 
crewmember should stay aboard the swamped 
boat to steer and to keep weight aft, so she will 
ride better. 


Man Overboard 

When you have lost someone overboard you 
have a possible life/death situation on your 
hands. These are the things you must do or have 
your crew do at once, not necessarily in the se¬ 
quence given but at once. 


5-17 









SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



(< 








w 

n 

n 



5-35 MAN OVERBOARD-Heave a PFD, Keep 
a Sharp Watch on the Victim, Head Up 
and Luff to Him 


1. Don’t lose sight of the victim. Give the cry: 
“Man Overboard!” 

2. Heave a throwable personal flotation device 
(Type IV PFD) as close to the victim as pos¬ 
sible without hitting him or her with it. One 
of a bright color (e.g., International Orange) 
is desirable. A soft PFD is not likely to 
injure. The PFD will help the victim to float; 
if the victim has sunk the PFD will mark the 
location. An observer should keep the vic¬ 
tim in sight. 

3. If the boat is under power, stop the propeller 
(disengage the gear or, if necessary, shut 
down the engine) until you are sure the ro¬ 
tating propeller will not strike the victim. 


4. Get the boat under control. All too often 
someone goes overboard because the boat is 
out of control. It is a mistake to attempt a 
rescue before getting matters in hand on 
deck. Despite the urgent temptation to turn 
back instantly, be sure all the crew are on 
deck and know what’s to be done, and that all 
the sailing gear is in control before making a 
rescue attempt. Don’t take too long to do 
this. 

5. Put the boat around to pick up the victim. 
Under nearly all circumstances it is better to 
jibe around than tack. Luff the boat up into 
the wind alongside of the victim, as close as 
you can get without endangering him or her. 


5-18 


Now, before attempting to recover the vic¬ 
tim, secure him or her. At the moment of rescue 


















WEATHER FORECASTING 
AND HEAVY WEATHER SAILING 



5-36 Assisting Overboard Victim 


many people have ceased trying to keep afloat 
and have sunk before the eyes of their rescuers. 
Get a line under the victim’s arms and secure it 
to the boat. Unless the person is injured, no 
other person should go over the side to help — 
you can almost always help better from the 
boat. The victim will be exhausted, scared, and 
probably so weighted down by clothing that he 
or she will be virtually helpless. In cold water 
areas the danger of hypothermia, the poten¬ 
tially fatal loss of body heat, makes it impor¬ 
tant to get the person aboard as quickly as pos¬ 
sible. Ease the victim gently over the gunwale: 
usually the best way is to get the torso up over 
the side and secured, then to grab a leg and to 
heave it up onto the deck. 

Remember that a sailboat has all kinds of 
gear to give you leverage if the victim’s weight 
makes it impossible to bring him or her aboard 
unaided: winches, halyards, the boom, a sail 
lowered into the water to form a sling to con¬ 
tain the victim and then winched aboard. 


Practice. Have “Man Overboard Drills” on 
your boat frequently. Unexpectedly throw a 
floating object (the “victim”) over the side and 
call, “Man overboard!” Time yourselves from 
man overboard to recovery and then try to beat 
your time on the next try. You and your crew 
will become trained, experienced, and increas¬ 
ingly proficient. 

Conclusion 

No sailor is really competent until he or she 
has faced and matched heavy weather. While it 
is foolish to take chances, neither should you 
underestimate yourself or your boat. The best 
way to find out what heavy weather is all about 
is to hitch a ride aboard the boat of someone you 
know to be a top skipper and observe what he or 
she does, asking questions anytime the actions 
aren’t obvious. Sooner than you think you 
should arrive at the point where you have a 
healthy respect for the awesome force of the sea, 
but not an irrational fear of it. 


5-19 














SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


BEAUFORT WIND SCALE 


Beau¬ 

fort 

num¬ 

ber 

Seaman’s 
description 
of wind 

Velocity 
m. p. h. 

Estimating 
velocities 
on land 

Estimating 

velocities 

on sea 

Probable 

mean 
height of 
waves in 
feet 

Descrip¬ 
tion 
of Sea 

0 

Calm . 

Less than 1 ... 

Smoke rises vertically. 

Smoke drifts; wind vanes 
unmoved. 

Sea like a mirror . 


Calm (glassy) 
Rippled 

1 

Light air. 

1-3. 

Ripples with the appearance of 
scales are formed but without 
foam crests. 

'/2 . 

2 

Light breeze .... 

4-7 . 

Wind felt on face; leaves 
rustle; ordinary vane 
moved by wind. 

Small wavelets, still short but 
more pronounced; crests have a 
glassy appearance and do not 
break. 

1 . 

Smooth 

3 

Gentle breeze ... 

8-12 . 

Leaves and twigs in con¬ 
stant motion; wind ex¬ 
tends light flag. 

Large wavelets. Crests begin to 
break. Foam of glassy 
appearance. Perhaps scattered 
white caps. 

2'/ 2 . 


4 

Mod. breeze .... 

13-18 . 

Raises dust and loose 
paper; small branches are 
moved. 

Small waves, becoming longer, 
fairly frequent white caps. 

5 . 

Slight 

5 

Fresh breeze .... 

19-24 . 

Small trees in leaf begin 
to sway; crested wavelets 
form on inland water. 

Moderate waves, taking a more 
pronounced long form; many 
white caps are formed. (Chance 
of some spray.) 

10 . 

Moderate 

6 

Strong breeze .. 

25-31 . 

Large branches in mo¬ 
tion; whistling heard in 
telegraph wires; umbrel¬ 
las used with difficulty. 

Large waves begin to form; the 
white foam crests are more ex¬ 
tensive everywhere. (Probably 
some spray.) 

15 . 

Rough 

7 

Moderate gale .. 

32-38 . 

Whole trees in motion; 
inconvenience felt in 
walking against wind. 

Sea heaps up and white foam 
from breaking waves begins to 
be blown in streaks. 

20. 

Very rough 

8 

Fresh gale . 

39-46 . 

Breaks twigs off trees; 
generally impedes prog¬ 
ress. 

Moderately high waves of 
greater length; edges of crests 
break into spindrift. The foam 
is blown in well-marked streaks 
along the direction of the wind. 

25 . 

High 

9 

Strong gale . 

47-54 . 

Slight structural damage 
occurs. 

High waves. Dense streaks of 
foam along the direction of the 
wind. Sea begins to roll. Spray 
may affect visibility. 

30 . 


10 

11 

Whole gale . 

Storm . 

55-63 . 

64-73 . 

Trees uprooted; consid¬ 
erable structural dam¬ 
age occurs. 

Very high waves with long, 
overhanging crests. The sur¬ 
face of the sea takes a white ap¬ 
pearance. 

The sea is completely covered 
with long white patches of foam 
lying along the direction of the 
wind. Everywhere edges of the 
wave crests are blown into 
froth. Visibility affected. 

35 . 

40 . 

Very high 

12 

Hurricane . 

74-82 . 


The air is filled with foam and 
spray. Sea completely white 
with driving spray; visibility 
very seriously affected. 

45 or 

more .. 

Phenomenal 


5-37 Beaufort Wind Scale 

5-20 











































Chapter 6 


Rules of the Road 
and Legal Requirements 


Although sailing symbolizes freedom to 
many people, there are still rules and regulations 
that every seafarer must follow, for his or her 
own safety and that of others. Basically, the 
legal obligations of boating people fall into two 


categories — the rules of the nautical road, 
which apply to the way you handle your boat in 
relation to other boats; and the requirements of 
registration and equipment, which have to do 
with the way you keep up your boat. 



6-1 International, Great Lakes and Western River Rules of the Road are Shown. The 
Inland Rules Apply to Boats in Bays, Harbors and Estuaries Connected With the 
Atlantic or Pacific Oceans or the Gulf of Mexico 


6-1 



SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Rules of the Road 

Just as most states of the United States have 
generally similar traffic codes with special 
regulations for local conditions, so there are 
several different water traffic codes, known as 
Rules of the Road. Which set applies to you will 
depend on where you do your sailing. Most 
American boaters come under the jurisdiction 
of the Inland Rules of the Road, which apply to 
boats in bays and estuaries connected with the 
Atlantic or Pacific Oceans or the Gulf of 
Mexico. Such major boating centers as Long 
Island Sound, Chesapeake and Biscayne Bays 
and San Francisco Bay and Puget Sound are 
covered by the Inland Rules. Once out in the 
open ocean (or the Gulf of Mexico), the same 
boats are subject to the International Rules of 
the Road. 

The Boundary line between inland and Inter¬ 
national jurisdiction, as far as the Rules of the 
Road are concerned, is indicated on current 
charts by a line which is so labeled. The detailed 
locations of these boundaries are fully noted in 
“U.S. Coast Guard COLREGS DEMARKA- 
TION LINES” CG 169-1. This document is 
available free from Commandant (G-CMA), 
U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20593. 

Every skipper using Inland-International 
waters should have a copy of CG-169 in his 
library; skippers sailing the Great Lakes or the 
Mississippi River system may write the same 
address for free copies of “Rules of the Road, 
Great Lakes” (CG-172) or “Rules of the Road, 
Western Rivers” (CG-184). 

r # 

Skippers who do their boating on the Great 
Lakes observe the Great Lakes Rules, while 
boats on the Mississippi River system operate 
under a code called the Western Rivers Rules. 

All of this sounds very complicated, but with 
a few exceptions it’s easy to untangle. The Great 
Lakes and Western Rivers Rules are nearly 
identical to the Inland Rules, which are 
themselves by and large similar to the Inter¬ 
national Rules. Because probably the majority 
of American sailors do their boating in Inland 


Rules waters, we will deal with the requirements 
of that code in detail, noting only the differences 
between Inland Rules and the other rules where 
such exist. 

Inland Rules of the Road 

The regulations governing the behavior of 
your boat in relation to other watercraft are 
generally known as steering and sailing rules. 
They are a bit more complicated for the average 
sailor than for the average powerboat skipper, 
because the sailor has two sets of rules to learn: 
those which apply when his boat is under sail 
alone, and those which apply when the boat’s 
auxiliary engine is on — even if the sails are up 
and drawing at the same time. 

In understanding the rules, the first thing to 
remember is that they have only one purpose — 
to prevent collisions. This objective requires the 
cooperation of all skippers. Therefore, although 
boats on the water are divided into two classes 
stand-on and give-way — by the rules, both 
have obligations as well as rights. As far as the 
rules are concerned, when two vessels are 
approaching each other in a way that threatens a 




6-2 The Burdened or Give-Way Vessel Must 
Keep Clear of the Privileged or Stand- 
On Vessel 


6-2 






RULES OF THE ROAD 
AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 


collision, one of the two is normally the stand- 
on craft, and must maintain her course and 
speed, while the other is the give-way vessel, and 
must take whatever avoiding action is 
necessary. ( I he terms stand-on and give-way 
have recently been adopted world-wide to 
replace, respectively, the older terms privileged 
and burdened, which you may still encounter in 
some texts. The meanings are exactly the same, 
but the new terms better describe the respon¬ 
sibilities of each vessel.) 

When two sailboats, encounter each other 
under the Inland Article 17, the matter of stand- 
on and give-way applies according to their po¬ 
sitions relative to the wind and to each other, as 
follows: 

1. A vessel running free shall keep out of the 

way of a vessel close-hauled. 


2. A vessel close-hauled on the port tack shall 
keep out of the way of a vessel close-hauled 
on the starboard tack. 

3. When both are running free, with the wind 
on different sides, the vessel which has the 
wind on the port side shall keep out of the 
way of the other. 

4. When both are running free, with the wind 
on the same side, the vessel which is to the 
windward shall keep out of the way of the 
vessel which is to the leeward. 

5. The vessel which has the wind aft shall keep 
out of the way of the other vessel. 

One of these conditions is bound to exist 
when two sailboats approach each other so that 
there is danger of collision. Both Great Lakes 
and Western Rivers Rules follow the Inland 
Rule. 

But the International Rule is different. Under 
this set of regulations, no distinction is made 
between a boat that is running and one that is 
close hauled, and only two situations exist: 



6-3 A Sailboat on Starboard Tack has Right- 
of-Way Over a Sailboat on Port Tack 



6-4 The Windward Sailboat Must Give Way to 
the Leeward Sailboat on Same Tack 


First, starboard tack is the stand-on craft when 
the two boats are on different tacks; and second, 
when both are on the same tack, the windward 
boat gives way. While most sailors will only 
have to deal with one rule, some skippers will 
need to understand both Inland and Inter¬ 
national, if their sailing grounds are near the 
border of the two jurisdictions. 


6-3 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


All the foregoing should not be confused with 
the sailboat racing rules, prepared by various 
authorities. These rules are vastly more complex 
than either Inland or International Rules, and 
they only pertain to sailboats which are racing. 
The ordinary sailor who isn’t racing should 
always be guided by the “real” rules of the road, 
not the racing variety. At the same time, people 
engaged in racing should be allowed as much 
room as possible, simply as a matter of courtesy, 
especially if the non-racer is in no hurry to get 
someplace. By the same token, private (i.e., non¬ 
commercial) fishing boats should be given lots 
of room, so as not to spoil their enjoyment of the 
water all boating people share. 

Generally speaking, sailboats are the stand- 
on vessels with respect to powerboats, but there 
are several important things to bear in mind. 
First and perhaps most important is that a 
sailboat is only a sailboat when propelled by the 
wind alone, as noted earlier. If the engine is 
going and in gear, she is a powerboat. In this 
case, it is especially important for the motor¬ 
sailing skipper to make his or her intentions very 


clear, because there’s likely to be considerable 
doubt in the minds of other powerboat 
operators who may not see the faint exhaust 
plume or hear the engine. 

But sailboats are not always stand-on craft 
with respect to powerboats. There are three 
exceptions to bear in mind: 

1. When a sailboat is overtaking another boat, 
the sailboat is the give-way vessel, no matter 
how the other vessel is propelled. 

2. Commercial fishing vessels engaged in 
fishing with nets, lines or trawls must not be 
interfered with (this is not only common 
sense but also common decency). 

3. In a narrow channel where a large vessel 
has no choice but to navigate, no smaller 
vessel — sail or power — has the right to 
force the larger out of the way. In Inter¬ 
national waters, both sail and power vessels 
must also keep clear of a vessel unable to 
maneuver (“not under command”) or 
restricted in her ability to maneuver — such 
as a dredge, pipe-laying craft, or the like. 



6-5 When a Sailboat is Overtaking Another Boat the Sailboat is the Give-Way Vessel, 
No Matter How the Other Vessel is Propelled 


6-4 








RULES OF THE ROAD 
AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 



6-6 Commercial Fishing Vessels, While 
Fishing, Have the Right-of-Way Over Sail 
and Power Boats 



The three basic right-of-way situations for 
powerboats are: 

1. Meeting head-on or nearly so. 

2. Crossing. 

3. Overtaking. 

When two powerboats approach head-on, 
each should swing to the starboard so the boats 
pass port side to port side. There should be no 
hesitation in taking this action, and no excep¬ 
tion to it save when going right will endanger the 
boat. Even though a turn of a couple of degrees 
may be all that’s necessary to miss the other 
boat, the wise skipper will swing the bow 10 or 
15 degrees to starboard, to make sure that the 
other sailor is aware of what action is being 
taken. 



6-8 The Meeting Situation - Head On or 
Nearly So 


6-7 Stay Clear of Large Vessels at all Times 

Rules aside, the normal instincts of self- 
preservation dictate that a small sailboat not 
demand its stand-on right over an unwieldy 
power vessel. Large commercial vessels are not 
very maneuverable at the best of times, and 
from many of them the visibility is extremely 
limited. The best rule for the sailboat skipper is 
stay clear of commercial shipping, but if a right- 
of-way situation does develop, then obey the 
rules of the road exactly. 

When a sailboat becomes a powerboat, the 
power rules of the road apply. As with sail, these 
rules come in four geographical groupings — 
International, Inland, Great Lakes and Western 
Rivers. 


When two powerboats are crossing more or 
less at right angles, the stand-on boat is on ihe 
right of the two boats. She must maintain her 
course and speed as much as possible, while the 
other vessel takes whatever avoiding action is 
necessary. 

When one powerboat is overtaking another, 
the overtaken boat always is the stand-on vessel. 
In Inland, Western Rivers, or Great Lakes jur¬ 
isdictions a skipper wishing to pass another boat 
on her port side should blow two blasts of the 
whistle which would mean, “I am planning to 
pass you on your port side.” If he wishes to pass 
on the other boat’s starboard, he should blow 
one blast on the whistle. The skipper of the over¬ 
taken boat responds with the same signal if he 
feels that passing is safe. If not, the overtaken 


6-5 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


boat should sound a danger signal — four or 
more rhythmic blasts of the whistle which 
means, “Stop! What you propose is dangerous.” 

Under International Rules, the same signals 
might be used but with a slightly different mean¬ 
ing: 1 blast would mean, “1 am altering my 
course to starboard,” 2 blasts would mean, “I 
am altering my course to port,” or 3 blasts 
would mean, “My engines are in reverse.” If op¬ 
erating under International Rules in a narrow 
channel where the overtaken ship must take 



6-9 The Crossing Situation 


G - Signals: 


2 Blasts 


S - Responds: 

2 Blasts 



Passing to Starboard 


1 Blast 


1 Blast 


6-10 The Overtaking Situation - Inland Rules 


action to permit passage, special whistle signals 
are used: Two prolonged blasts followed by one 
short blast mean, “I intend to overtake you on 
your starboard side” or two prolonged blasts 
followed by two short blasts mean, “I intend to 
overtake you on your port side”. The overtaken 
vessel indicates her agreement with either of 
these proposals by sounding one prolonged, one 
short, one prolonged and one short blast on her 
whistle. If she feels the passage chosen would be 
dangerous, she sounds the danger signal — five 
or more short blasts in International waters. 

Passing is not normally a difficult situation, 
but the boat whose skipper wishes to pass is 
obliged to take whatever steps are necessary to 
keep clear of the boat being passed until the 
overtaking boat is free and clear ahead of the 
overtaken craft. 


Running and Anchor Lights 

At night, or in conditions of poor visibility, 
boats display patterns of colored lights which 
not only reveal their presence, but which also 
tell the trained observer what kind of a boat is in 
view and what direction she is heading in 
relation to the observer’s boat. This is the main 
distinction between the lights on automobiles, 
which are there to help the driver see, and those 
on boats, which are designed to help the vessel 
bearing them to be seen. 

There are many different patterns of lights 
visible on American watercraft. Both Inter¬ 
national and Inland - Great Lakes - Western 
Rivers have different patterns for the same 
boats. Lights arranged for inland waters may 
only be displayed on those waters. For motor- 
boats, lights in the International conformation 
may be shown on International, Inland, Great 
Lakes, or Western Rivers waters. This privilege 
of inter-change is not extended to sailboats 
(with no engines aboard) nor to motor vessels 
over 65 feet in length. 

The accompanying charts show both 
arrangements for boats of various sizes under 
sail alone. There is an important distinction to 
bear in mind. There are different types of lights 
shown by powerboats and sailboats. For in- 


6-6 











RULES OF THE ROAD 
AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 


INLAND WATERS 

Including Great Lakes (1) and Western Rivers (2) 


AUXILIARY: Sail & Power or Power Alone (3) 

VESSELS LESS THAN 26 FEET J- 


Combination 
20 Pts, 1 Mi 



SAILBOAT: Under Sail Alone 


12 Pts. 2 Mi 


White 



Sidelights 
10 Pts, 2 Mi 


Green 


12 Pts. 2 Mi 


White 



Sidelights 
10 Pts, 2 Mi 


Green 


Notes: (1) Great Lakes. In lieu of Stem Light, sailing vessels display White Light on that portion of 
vessel being approach by another vessel. 

(2) Western Rivers. Side lights on vessels under sail must be visible 3 miles 

(3) Auxiliary sailboats under sail alone, may, in lieu of 12pt stern light, carry flash light or 
lantern to be exhibited in time to prevent collision. 


INTERNATIONAL WATERS 

VESSELS UNDER SAIL ALONE 

International Lights may be used on Inland Waters by Power-Driven Vessels and Sailing Auxiliaries 
VESSELS LESS THAN 20 METERS (65.7 Ff) | - 


12 Pts. 2 Mi 
White 



Sidelights 
lOPts, 2 Mi 
( 1 ) 


12 Pts. 2 Mi 
White 


or 


Green 



Combination 
20 Pts, 2 Mi 
( 1 ) 


Green 


VESSELS LESS THAN 12 METERS (39.4FT) 


White 
12 Pts 
2 Mi 


reen 



Red Combination 
20 Pts, 2 Mi 


OPTIONAL - All Sailing Vessejs 

32 Pts 
2 Mi 



12 Pts, 2 Mi 
White 


Sidelights 
lOPts, 2 Mi 

( 1 ) 

Red 


Note: (1) Range of visibility may be 1 mile for vessels less than 12 meters 


Lights for Sail Boats under power are the same as those for Power Boats below. 


LESS THAN 12 METERS 

Carried at Least 1 Meter Higher 
than Colored Lights 


12 TO 20 METERS 

Carried at Least 2.5 Meters 
Above the Gunwale. 




6-11 Light Configuration Chart 


6-7 




















































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


full circle. Thus, one light — and only one light 
— should be visible to a boat approaching from 
either side or from astern. From dead ahead the 
red and green side lights will both be visible. 

If the same 30-footer is proceeding under 
power, the same lights as before are shown, with 
the addition of a white light on the forward side 
of the mast covering the same arc as the 
combined red and green lights. Consider the 
similarities and differences: 

Seeing a plain moving white light nearly 
always means you are overtaking another vessel 
and must keep clear of her. 

Seeing a green light and nothing else means 
you are approaching the starboard side of a 
sailboat under sail alone, but seeing a green light 
with a white light over it means you’re nearing a 
powerboat — quite a difference. 


INLAND 


1 Blast per imj ii b i 2 Blasts per 

Minute Minute 




Regardless of Tack, 

3 Blasts per Minute 


Remember, too, that boats operating under 
both sail and power display the lights ap¬ 
propriate to powerboats. Skippers of such craft 
— and of any boats with sails up — should be 
extra careful that the sails don’t mask any of the 
running lights. 

While at anchor, some boats will have a low 
anchor light and some boats a light high on the 
mast. On larger vessels, it is not unusual for an 
anchor light to be placed on a mast which might 
be 50 ft. above the water. Don’t confuse a high 
anchor light for a bright star. Be watchful for 
boats at anchor not displaying lights. 

Sailing in Fog 

When sailing in reduced visiblity, boats are 
required to give the proper signals on a horn. 
Most sailors use the gas-powered variety that 
gives up to 500 toots per cannister, but some 
sailors of small boats employ a mouth-operated 
horn. Before adopting the latter course, con¬ 
sider how you’ll feel after blowing a signal once 
every minute or so for a couple of hours. 

Sailboats on starboard tack with the wind 
forward of the beam — close reaching or 
beating, that is — sound one blast each minute. 
If on port tack with the wind forward of the 


6-12 Sailboat Signals — Reduced Visibility — 
Inland Rules 


INTERNATIONAL 





Tack 



Regardless of Tack, 

1 Prolonged - 2 Short Blasts 
Sounded Every 2 Minutes 


6-13 Sailboat Signals — Reduced Visibility — 
International Rules 


6-8 












RULES OF THE ROAD 
AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 



6-14 A Radar Reflector Helps Make Your Boat 
“Visible” to Ships and Boats With Radar 

beam, the sailing skipper sounds two blasts in 
succession each minute. If the boat has the wind 
astern (no matter which tack) she sounds three 
blasts in succession every minute. If sailing in 


International waters, a sailboat will sound, 
regardless of tack or point of sailing, one 
prolonged blast followed by two short blasts at 
intervals of not more than two minutes. 

Powerboats under way in fog sound one 
prolonged blast every minute, except on the 
Great Lakes, where the signal is three separate 
blasts each minute, and Western Rivers, where 
the signal is two short, one long each minute. 
Obviously, sailboats under power alone, or 
power and sail, sound powerboat signals. One 
point, not shown here, is worth making. On 
Inland waters, a tug with a tow astern sounds a 
long blast followed by two short blasts each 
minute; and on the Great Lakes a powerboat 
sounds three blasts in succession each minute — 
so bear in mind that when you hear a fog signal 
and cannot see the vessel producing it, you 
cannot count on being sure just what’s out there. 
Slow down to dead slow, continue making your 
own correct signal, and above all, don’t pass 
close astern of a powerboat making the towing 
signal — you may easily wind up snagged in the 
towline. 



6-15 Legal Requirements Are Minimum Safety Requirements 


6-9 



SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



Less than 16' 

16' Less than 26’ 

26' Less than 40’ 

40' TO 65'l NCL. 


Legal 

CME 

Legal 

CME 

Legal 

CME 

Legal 

CME 

PAPERS - 

In order & on person or boat 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

NUMBERING - 
Block type of contrasting color 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

# 

♦ 

• 

BELL- 





♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

PERSONAL FLOTATION DEVICE - 
Approved type, adequate number 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

# 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

VENTILATION - 
Cowls & Ducts to closed areas 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

FLAME ARRESTER(S) - 
On carburetors of inboard engines 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

FIRE EXTINGUISHER(S) 

Approved type, adequate size & number 

(D 

• 

(D 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

HORN OR WHISTLE 


# 

♦ 

# 

♦ 

• 

(2) 

• 

LIGHTS - 
Navigation & Anchor 

(3) 

• 

(3) 

• 

(3) 

# 

(3) 

• 

FUEL TANKS 

Properly secured & vented 


m 


• 


• 


• 

CARBURETOR DRIP PAN - 
Under updraft carburetors 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

♦ 

• 

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION - 
In good condition & fused 


• 


# 


• 


• 

DISTRESS FLARES - 
For emergency signalling 

(4) 

• 

(4) 

• 

(4) 

• 

(4) 

• 

GALLEY STOVE - 
Marine type, properly installed 


• 


• 


• 


• 

MANUAL PUMP OR BAILER - 


• 


• 





ANCHOR AND LINE - 
Suitable size & adequate line 


# 


• 


• 


• 

MARINE SANITATION DEVICE 

(4) 


(4) 


(4) 


(4) 



Notes: 1. Not required on boats of open construction, powered by outboard Legend: ♦= Legal Requirements 


2. Power operated •= CME Requirements 

3. Legal requirements call for display of lights when needed. However, 
their installation on the vessel is not mandatory. 

4. See page 6-12 


6-16 Legal Requirements and Requirements For the Seal of Safety Decal 


6-10 



































RULES OF THE ROAD 
AND LEGAL REQUIREMENTS 


At anchor, in an area of restricted visibility 
(e.g., fog), a boat at anchor must, at least once a 
minute, ring the bell rapidly for about 5 seconds 
and may, in addition, give a horn signal of one 
short, one prolonged, and one short blast. If 
aground, add 3 distinct and separate bell strokes 
before and after each ringing). 

Under Inland and Western Rivers Rules the 
bell is rung rapidly for 5 seconds each minute 
unless anchored in a special anchorage. 

Under Great Lakes Rules, a vessel at anchor 
or aground in or near a channel or fairway, must 
ring the bell rapidly for 3 to 5 seconds plus, every 
3 minutes, one short horn blast, two long, and 
one short. 


Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) - See Appendix B 


Legally Required Equipment 

Under federal law, certain equipment is 
required to be aboard every boat. Some of these 
items apply to powerboats only and may be 
omitted on a sailboat with no engine aboard. 
However, most sailboats will have at least an 
auxiliary engine and so will need this equip¬ 
ment. 

Over and above the bare minimum legal re¬ 
quirements some additional equipment should 
be on board. The Coast Guard Auxiliary offers 
a free Courtesy Marine Examination to all boat 
owners. This includes checking all the legally 
required equipment and a few additional safety 
•items. If your boat passes this examination, it 
will be issued a decal showing that it has passed. 
If it fails to pass, you will be told privately in 
what ways it is deficient so that you can take cor¬ 
rective action. No report will ever be issued to 
any law enforcement agency concerning any de¬ 
ficiencies. The table shown here gives a brief 
summary of the various legal requirements and 
the extra items required for the award of this 
decal. 

While no attempt will be made in this book to 
discuss these various requirements in detail, a 
few' brief comments are in order. 



6-17 A Safety Harness is a “Must” Particu¬ 
larly in Foul or Heavy Weather 



6-18 Registration Numbers Properly Displayed 


6-11 







SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


1. PERSONAL FLOTATION DEVICES 
(PFDs). One PFD is required for every 
person aboard. If the boat is less than 16 feet 
in length, any Coast Guard approved PFD is 
acceptable. If the boat is 16 feet or longer, the 
PFD must be of a wearable style (Type I, II, 
or III). In addition, at least one throwable 
PFD (Type IV) must be aboard any boat 16 
feet or longer. Wearable PFDs must be kept 
readily available while throwable PFDs must 
be immediately available. 

2. FIRE EXTINGUISHERS. These must be 
Coast Guard approved and of a marine type. 
At least one must be aboard every power¬ 
boat (more if over 26 feet in length) and 
should be located where it will be readily 
available in case of fire. The requirement for 
carrying a fire extinguisher is waived for a 
powerboat under 26 feet in length with an 
outboard motor only and with no closed 
compartments where gasoline fumes might 
accumulate. 

3. IDENTIFICATION AND NUMBERS. All 
boats with any type of mechanical propul¬ 
sion must be numbered — usually assigned 
by the state of principal use. They must be in 
plain, vertical block characters at least 3 
inches high, of a color in contrast to the 
hull’s, separated by spaces or hyphens as 
needed, and reading from left to right on 
both sides of the vessel’s forward half. Reg¬ 
istration papers or document must be aboard 
whenever the boat is in use. 

4. WHISTLE OR HORN. A whistle or horn is 
required aboard every powerboat 16 feet or 
longer. Smaller boats must still give whistle 
signals as required. A boat 40 ft. to less than 
65 ft. must have a power operated whistle or 
horn. 

5. BELL. A bell is required aboard every boat 
26 feet or longer. Smaller boats must still give 
bell signals as required. 

6. ACCIDENT REPORTS. While it is not an 
equipment requirement, every boater should 
be aware that reports must be made prompt¬ 


ly to the appropriate agency (usually the 
state) in every case of death, disappearance, 
injury requiring treatment beyond first aid, 
or property damage in excess of $200. These 
are federal limits; some individual state re¬ 
quirements may be more stringent. 

7. DISCHARGE OF OIL. Federal law pro¬ 
hibits the discharge of oil or oily waste from 
any vessel and vessels 26 feet or longer are 
required to have posted a placard warning of 
this prohibition. 

8. VISUAL DISTRESS SIGNALS. All rec¬ 
reational boats 16 feet or more are required 
to be equipped with visual distress signalling 
devices at all times when operating on coastal 
waters as of 1 January 1981. Also, boats less 
than 16 feet are required to carry visual dis¬ 
tress signals when operating on coastal 
waters at night. Completely open sailboats 
without engines are excepted, as are boats 
propelled manually. Also excepted are boats 
in organized races, regattas, parades, etc. 
Visual Distress Signals must be Coast Guard 
approved, readily accessible, serviceable, 
and, for those applicable, bearing a legible, 
unexpired date. 

9. MARINE SANITATION DEVICES 
(MSD’s). Each vessel with an installed toilet 
must have attached to it either: 1) a marine 
sanitation device (MSD) certified by the 
Coast Guard; or 2) a holding tank. Operat¬ 
ing a boat with a non-approved MSD is 
illegal in the navigable waters of the U.S., in¬ 
cluding the “territorial sea” (“three mile 
limit”). In addition, certain bodies of fresh¬ 
water have been declared no-discharge areas. 
To comply, all installed toilets must be certi¬ 
fied by the Coast Guard or designed to retain 
waste onboard for pumpout at a land site. All 
non-approved overboard discharge toilets 
must be removed or permanently disabled, 
but there is no requirement to install toilet fa¬ 
cilities on vessels not currently having them. 
These regulations do not affect portable 
toilets on vessels. 


6-12 


Chapter 7 


Sailing Seamanship 


Where the able seaman aboard a square- 
rigged sailing vessel of the 1800s might have to 
be familiar with literally dozens of knots and 
splices, today’s weekend sailor only needs to 
know a few basics about ropework and 
seamanship generally. Although it’s legitimately 
a subject by itself, anchoring is so closely 
connected with rope and line handling that we’ll 
consider it in this chapter. 

Anchoring and Mooring 

Basically an anchor is a hook. Its point or 
points (flukes) dig into the sea bottom while a 
line connects it to the boat. The whole process 
seems so simple, but in fact several elements in 
the equipment and in the anchoring process are 
critical, and if they fail, the boat can drift to 
disaster. 

There are several common types of anchors in 
use throughout the United States today. 
Probably the most popular is the Danforth and 
other makes derived from it. Known collectively 
as “lightweight burying anchors,” all the 
Danforth-types have a pair of long, wide flukes 
that pivot at one end, where they are connected 
to a pipe-shaped stock. The amount of pivot of 
the flukes is very important, as it controls the 
angle between the flukes and the shank, to 
which the anchor line is attached; a proper angle 



7-1 Danforth Anchor 


between shank and flukes insures that the sharp- 
pointed flukes will dig in deeply and quickly, 
instead of skidding along the bottom. 

Danforth-style anchors are lightweight for 
their size and holding power (see the table at the 
end of the chapter). They are most often em¬ 
ployed where the sea bottom is sand, mud or just 


7-1 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



7-2 Yachtsman’s Anchor 

about anything except rocks, gravel, coral or 
kelp (a thick, ribbon-like weed that clogs the 
flukes of nearly any anchor). 

Popular among sailors with larger boats is the 
plow, an anchor developed in England. It has 
but one oversize fluke shaped like a plowshare, 
hence the anchor’s name. The plow will work 
well in mud and will sometimes work in rocks or 
kelp. For the same size boat, a plow should 
usually be a bit heavier than the corresponding 
Danforth. 

The kedge, or yachtsman’s, anchor is the 
traditional design, dating back to Roman times 
in its basic form. Actually, there are a number of 
subtle but important variations in fluke design 
among kedges designed for different types of 
bottom. In recent years the kedge almost died 
out of commercial production but now seems to 
be coming back, at least to some degree. 

The standard kedge has two opposed, curving 
flukes, so that only one can dig in at a time. 
There is a relatively long shank at right angles to 
the flukes, and then a folding stock at the 
anchor’s upper end. A kedge anchor can dig into 
types of bottom that defy other flukes, but 
considerably more weight in the anchor itself is 
required to make the design function — for 
normal use, one pound of anchor per foot of 
boat length. Since one fluke is exposed after the 
anchor is dug in, it’s easy for the boat to swing 



7-3 Plow Anchor 

around, foul the anchor line, and jerk the 
anchor free. 

Kedge anchors are popular with tradition- 
oriented sailors and with those whose 
anchorages include large patches of rocky or 
kelp-ridden bottom. Since most sailing areas 
include anchorages with varying types of bot¬ 
tom, most cruising sailboat owners carry two 
different types of anchor, to be ready for 
anything. In all but the smallest daysailers it is 
also convenient to have an everyday, or 
working, anchor and one a size heavier, the 
storm anchor. 

The anchor itself is only one part of the whole 
ground tackle system. The prudent skipper will 
shackle a length of chain — 12 to 20 feet or more 
— to the anchor ring. This not only precludes 
chafe at a point where it is most likely to occur, 
but also, by its weight, aids the anchor in dig- 



7-4 Anchor Fouled 


7-2 






SAILING SEAMANSHIP 


ging in. To the chain is attached, with a shackle 
and an eye splice, the anchor rode, usually nylon 
line tied to the boat. Check the chart of your 
sailing area for anchorages, and try to carry a 
rode at least 10 times longer than the high-tide 
depth of the deepest anchorage you expect to 
use. If this is impossible, a 100- or 150-foot rode 
should be adequate for most circumstances. 

When a boat is at anchor, she normally has no 
motive power of her own. She will respond to 
the force of the current or the wind or both. 
Different kinds of boats react differently to 
these forces. Deep-draft keel boats, with a great 
deal of underbody, will often swing according to 
the current, while shallow centerboarders will 
respond primarily to wind pressure. When wind 
and current are in different directions, this can 
cause problems for dissimilar boats anchored 
close together, as they may swing into each 
other. 


Anchoring 

Generally speaking, when there is a choice it’s 
best to anchor among boats of a size and type 
similar to your own. Try to calculate roughly the 
swinging circle of nearby craft — you can 
always ask other skippers, if they’re aboard. If 
you know the depth of the anchorage (you can 
mark the depths in advance on your anchor line 
with plastic tags) and the amount of line a boat 
has out, it’s easy to figure her swinging circle. 
Do bear in mind, too, that in anchorages the 
first boat has priority, and you must keep clear if 
you’re a late arrival. 

Having selected your anchorage, you should 
set up the boat and her gear for the final 
approach. If your anchor is stowed in chocks or 
otherwise carried on deck ready for use, undo 
the lashings and make sure that the anchor line 
is clear to run out. It’s a good idea to lower and 
furl the jib before your approach, to give you a 
clear foredeck. 

Bring up as much anchor line as you expect to 
use and coil it loosely on deck so it will run out 
easily. The coil should be capsized — upside 
down — so that the end of the rode closest to the 
anchor is on top. 



CURRENT 

7-5 Anchoring Too Close 



7-6 Anchor Stowed on Foredeck Chocks 


7-3 













SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



7-7 Anchor Stowed on Bow Rail 


When you’ve reached the spot where you 
want to anchor, head up into the wind until all 
momentum is lost. When the boat stops moving 
forward, lower the anchor hand-over-hand 
from the bow. Don’t throw it and don’t drop the 
coil of rode over in one lump. You’ll feel the 
anchor touch bottom, at which point make a 
mental note of how deep the water is. Now, as 
the boat drifts backward, have one crewmember 
lower and furl the mainsail while the other pays 
out the anchor line until approximately five to 
seven times the water depth has been used. 

r t 

Take a quick turn around the deck cleat and 
let the boat’s momentum snub the anchor line 
and dig in the hook. You can tell iftheanchor is 
holding by grasping the rode forward of the 
bow. If the boat is dragging, you’ll feel the 
anchor bouncing along the bottom. You can 
also sight on objects ashore, to see if their 
positions change relative to the boat. 

If your boat has an engine, it frequently helps 
in setting the anchor to give a burst of reverse, 
once the anchor is down and the rode is fully 
extended. If the anchor refuses to bite in. 



7-8 Plow Anchor Stowed at Bow 


retrieve it. Chances are a rock or clump of 
seaweed has fouled the flukes. If, after several 
attempts, the anchor still won’t set, try another 
place in the anchorage. 

If you anchor among rocks, it’s a good idea to 
buoy the anchor, by tying a light line to the 
lower end of the anchor and running the line to a 
lightweight buoy or float. If the anchor’s flukes 
get stuck under a large rock, you can then draw 
it out backwards. When using this type of trip 
line, it will have to be paid out independently of 
the anchor rode, to avoid one line fouling the 
other. 

Permanent Mooring 

A permanent mooring is a ground tackle 
system designed to remain in place for whole 
seasons at a time. Mooring anchors are general¬ 
ly cast iron mushrooms, so named because of 
their appearance. A mushroom (except in the 
smallest sizes) is an uncomfortable device to 
carry aboard, and its relative holding power is 
not great compared to modern lightweight 
anchors. It does have a couple of outstanding 
advantages for permanent installation. First, 
even a very heavy mushroom is extremely cheap 
(relatively speaking), and second, a dug-in 
mushroom will resist pulls from any side. 


7-4 







SAILING SEAMANSHIP 



Normal mooring rigs today employ a heavy 
mushroom (see the table) shackled to a length of 
chain approximately equal in length to three 
times the high water depth in the anchorage. At 
the far end of the chain is a buoy, often made 
from polystyrene. To the buoy is attached the 
mooring pennant, a heavy, nylon rope with a 
large eye spliced in the extreme end. The only 
thing to be extra careful of, when setting up a 
mooring rig, is that the buoy has a metal rod 
running through it, to take the strain of the boat 
at one end and the mushroom at the other. Most 
mooring buoys are so reinforced, and one can 
tell at a glance. In some cases, a small pickup 
buoy, additional to the mooring buoy, is made 
fast to the loop in the pennant, so the 
crewmember on the bow can see and grab the 
pennant more easily. 

Line for Sailors 

In today’s sailboats, there are only four kinds 
of line in general use, and each is suited for 
certain applications. 


Nylon is a manmade fiber distinguished by its 
great strength, imperviousness to rot, and 
stretchiness. Because of this last factor, nylon is 
used where stretch is either unimportant or an 
asset for taking up sudden shocks. Anchor 
rodes, mooring pennants and dock lines are 
generally nylon. 

Dacron is similar to nylon in most respects, 
except that it is not nearly as stretchy. For this 
reason, Dacron (called Terylene in England) is 
used for sheets and halyards, where stretchiness 
is a definite liability. 

Polypropylene is weaker than either nylon or 
Dacron, and is so slippery that knots tied in it 
frequently work loose. It has, however, one 
asset that neither of its stronger cousins 
possesses: It floats. For dinghy towlines, pickup 
lines to mooring pennants and other 
applications where buoyancy is more important 
than strength, polypropylene is useful. 

Steel Wire, which you may not consider a 
rope, is employed where maximum strength and 


7-5 

























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


1x19 



m 


7x19 

7-10 Wire for Rigging 


7x7 


minimum stretch are vital. For most sailors, this 
means standing rigging and halyards and luff 
wires on large sails. Wire for standing rigging is 
called 1x19, (spoken as “one by nineteen”), 
which means that it consists of 19 equal 
elements wound around each other. It is very 
strong, but not particularly flexible. Wire for 
running rigging is called 7x19 (seven elements, 
each composed of 19 individual strands) or 7 x 7 
(seven elements, seven strands each); it is 
slightly weaker but a great deal more flexible. 
Nearly all wire is made from stainless steel. 

Some rope of Manila is still available in 
marine outlets. While much cheaper than any of 


the foregoing artificial fiber ropes, manila, a 
natural fiber, is not as strong and is also very 
prone to rot. Most skippers find manila a false 
economy. 

Line Construction 

Besides the material from which it is made, 
rope can be identified by its construction. There 
are two basic types. First is laid line, in which 
individual fibers are twisted in one direction to 
form yarns, several of which are then 
mechanically twisted the other way to form 
strands. Reversing the twist yet again, the 
strands are formed into the finished line, and 
most such line is three-strand construction. 

Opposed to this is braided line, which appears 
superficially like clothesline in its smooth sur¬ 
face, but which is usually formed of an outer, 
braided cover and an inner, braided core quite 
separate from the cover. Braided line is slightly 
more costly than laid line, and it is usually used 
for sheets or halyards, as it is said to be easier on 
the hands of the crew. Both laid and braided line 
may be combined with 7x 19 or 7x7 wire to form 
rope-and-wire halyards. The wire is long 
enough to reach from the fully-hoisted sail to 



7-11 Three Strand Laid Line 


7-6 



SAILING SEAMANSHIP 



7-12 Braided Line 

the winch, plus at least three turns around it. 
The rope end, called a tail, is used merely to get 
the sail up to where the wire takes the load. 


7-14 Square Knot 


Square Knot (also called a Reef Knot) was 
developed, as the alternative name suggests, in 
reefing. If your boat has point reefing, use a 
slippery square knot — like a shoelace knot with 
a single loop — to tie each pair of reef points to¬ 
gether. A square knot will serve for connecting 
any two lines of the same diameter. 


Basic Knots 

It is still possible to become master of dozens 
of useful or decorative knots, but for most 
sailors it is far easier and more efficient to learn 
a few basic knots and learn them well. The 
following are all basic and applicable aboard 
most boats, power or sail. 




7-13 Figure Eight Knot 


7-15 Sheet Bend, Double Sheet Bend 
and Slippery Sheet Bend 


Figure Eight is employed whenever it is useful 
to have a thick segment, called a stopper, at the 
end of a line. Most seamen put a figure eight in 
the end of each sheet, to keep it from running 
accidentally through the sheet block. 


Sheet Bend is for connecting two lines. It is 
better than a square knot because it is not as 
likely to over turn and it will work when the two 
lines are different in diameter. For extra securi¬ 
ty, try a Double Sheet Bend. 


7-7 





SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



7-16 Bowline 

Bowline (pronounced boe-lin) is one of the 
most useful knots ever invented. Practice it until 
you can tie it with your eyes closed. A bowline is 
used whenever a temporary loop is wanted in 
the end of a line. 



7-17 Starting the Clove Hitch 



7-18 Completed Clove Hitch 


Clove Hitch is for temporarily making a line 
fast to a piling. It should never be unattended, as 
it can easily work free under continued, sharp 
tugs. By making a simple overhand knot with 
the end of the line around the standing part, the 
clove hitch’s security is greatly increased. 



7-19 Fisherman’s Bend 


Fisherman’s Bend (also known as Anchor 
Bend) makes a good, temporary attachment of a 
line to an anchor. It is better for this purpose 
than a bowline, because the loop around the 
anchor ring, where chafe may occur, is double 
and is also drawn tight, to minimize sliding 
friction. 



7-20 Overhand Knot 


7-8 











SAILING SEAMANSHIP 


None of these knots is likely to stick in your 
mind until you have practiced it over and over 
again and have actually used it in earnest. 
Always try to make a point of using the 
appropriate knot for a given purpose. 

A good knot is said to have two outstanding 
characteristics: It is easy to tie and, even more 
important, easy to untie. Unfortunately, all 
knots have one bad feature — they weaken the 
rope in which they are tied, subtracting as much 
as half the strength is some cases. When a 
permanent loop or connection between two 
similar lines is desirable, it’s far better to employ 
a splice, which only weakens rope by perhaps 
10% when properly executed. 


Splices 

There are only two splices of interest to the 
average boatman and -woman: The eye splice is 
for making a permanent eye or loop in the end of 
a rope, and the short splice is for permanently 
joining two ropes of identical diameter. 

When learning to splice, it’s a good idea to 
equip yourself with a length or two of manila 
line about 3/ 8" in diameter (rope size is nearly 
always given in terms of diameter in this coun¬ 
try). Manila is stiffer than nylon or Dacron and 
holds its construction better during the twists 
and pulls of splicing. As you become more skill¬ 
ful, try the same thing with Dacron and nylon. 



7-21 The Short Splice 


7-9 




SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


You’ll also need some waterproof tape — 
electrician’s tape will serve, but you should carry 
a roll of sailor’s waterproof tape in your ditty 
bag (see Chapter 11) as well. If you’re working 
with new, stiff rope, a fid (a sailor’s tool for 
separating strands of rope) will also be handy. 
Now you’re ready to make a short splice. 

Unlay one end of your rope about six inches. 


This means undoing the line into its three 
component strands. Tape the end of each strand 
to keep it from untwisting and tape the point at 
which you want the unlaying to cease. Now do 
the same for the other end of the rope. 

“Marry” the two untwisted ends so that one 
strand of rope A alternates with one of rope B. 
Tape one set of strands in place. 



7-22 The Eye Splice 


7-10 



SAILING SEAMANSHIP 


Now take one of the loose strands and lead it 
over the taped neck of the opposite rope. Open a 
space between strands of the opposite rope and 
push the strand through as far as it will go — but 
don’t pull it tight just yet. 

Now do the same thing with the other two 
strands, working each one through an adjoining 
opening and pulling it through. 

Pull all three tucked strands tight one by one. 

Make a second set of tucks like the first. Be 
sure that you keep the alternations between 
strands of ropes A and B even. 

Make a third set of tucks and pull them tight. 

Untape the free set of strands and perform the 
same three-tuck operation with them. 

When you’re done, cut off the ends of the 
strands to within about a quarter-inch of the 
main rope. Roll the completed splice under your 
foot. 

With practice, you’ll find you can achieve 
great neatness and speed, but it does take time. 

The eye splice is a little harder than the short 
splice. It’s basically the same idea, except you’re 
making the tucks back into the standing part of 
the original rope. Unlay and tape the line as 
before. Now form the eye to the size you’ll want 
and lay the unlaid end along the standing part 
with one of the strands arbitrarily chosen to be 
the first tuck. 

Open the strands of the standing part with 
your fid and insert the first end strand, pulling it 
through. 

Take the next strand to the right of the first, as 
shown, and insert that, pulling it through. 

Turn the whole splice over — this is very 
important — and lead the remaining strand 
between the only two standing part strands left. 
Do this slowly and be sure you have it right. As 
soon as it’s done, you’ll know just by looking. 

Now continue with the remaining two sets of 
tucks, trim off the ends, and you’re done. 

When you splice artificial fiber line, which has 
less friction among the strands than does nat¬ 
ural fiber line, you should take five full series of 


tucks instead of three. This makes a somewhat 
lumpy-looking splice, but one with maximum 
strength, which is of course the most important 
thing. 

Seizing 

As you can tell from reading these instruc¬ 
tions and looking at the illustrations, this kind 
of splice can only be made in laid line. To splice 
braided line, one substitutes core for core and 
cover for cover. It’s not really necessary, 
however, as one may form a semi-permanent 
loop by the technique of seizing the two parts of 
the line together. 

To do this, you need a sailmaker’s palm — a 
kind of super-thimble — large needle and thread 
of the same material as the line you are seizing. 

Form the loop to the size desired. Now lay a 
series of tight, even turns of thread lashing the 
two parts of the line together. 

When the turns of thread have formed a 
lashing about equal in length to the diameter of 
the rope being used, sew the thread through the 
two parts of the line two or three times. 

Now make a second series of turns with the 
thread between the two parts of the main rope. 
Draw these turns as tight as possible. 

Sew through the main part of the rope, tie a 
figure eight in the end of the thread and cut it 
off. 

Although not quite as neat as a splice, a 
seizing is very strong and can be unmade. It can 
also be done with laid line. 

Whipping and Finishing 

Some of the most unattractive and un¬ 
seamanlike things visible on many boats are the 
tattered, frayed ends of line with overhand 
knots tied in the ends to keep further unlaying at 
bay. The end of every line aboard your boat 
should be neatly finished off, both to preserve 
the line itself and to make it easier for the rope to 
run through tight places like chocks and blocks. 

There are several ways to finish the end of a 
nylon or Dacron line, but the easiest with lines 


7-11 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



*7 


7-23 Sailmaker’s Palm and Needle 


of 3/ 8" diameter or less is simply to hold a match 
to the end until the fibers melt and fuse. Use a 
freshly-cut end for a neat job. 

For a temporary end, simply take four or five 
tight turns of waterproof tape, or buy one of 
the many commercial products and treat the end 
— usually by dipping into a plastic liquid that 
hardens instantly. 

With larger lines, and for sailors who enjoy 
ropework, a technique called whipping may be 
employed. It’s not unlike seizing, except that 
only one piece of line is dealt with. 

With Dacron or nylon thread, lay a series of 
tight turns around the end of the main rope, 
about half or three-eighths of an inch from the 
very end of the fibers. 

When the whipping turns form a lashing 
about equal in length to the diameter of the 
main rope, sew through the strands. Lay the 
thread in the spiral groove formed by the 
strands of laid line, or diagonally along braid. 

After making three sewed retaining threads, 
as shown, tie off the end of the thread. Besides 
being decorative, a whipping like this is very 
functional. 


7-24 Eye Splice in Braided Line 



7-25 Whipping 

Coiling 

Learning to coil a line properly is the mark of 
a good sailor. The so-called flemish coil, which 
looks like a doormat and which many unin¬ 
formed people associate with good seamanship, 
is nothing but a decoration and is virtually use¬ 
less as a coil. 

Coiled line should be formed in loops as large 
as practical, because the sharper a bend one 




7-12 

































SAILING SEAMANSHIP 



7-26 Cleating Halyard 


makes in a line, the greater the chance of frac¬ 
turing the fibers inside. When coiling a halyard 
or sheet, form the loops with one hand, then 
transfer them to the other hand, which holds the 
coil. 

To secure a coiled halyard, simply take the 
short length between the coil and the halyard 
cleat and lead it through the coil as a doubled 
piece of line. 

Twist it two or three times, as shown, and 
then loop the doubled piece over the upper horn 
of the cleat. This will hold the coiled halyard 
neatly and securely in place. 

If there isn’t room or the proper fitting for 
this, you may tuck the coil between the halyard 
just above the cleat and the mast itself. While 
neatness is desirable, it is important that the 
coiled line should be capable of being easily re¬ 
leased in a hurry. 



7-27 Cleated Halyard and 

Coiling Line for Stowing 


Coiled line stowed below may be hung from 
hooks with small loops of light line, as shown. 
While not as impressive as some fancy methods 
of hanging a coil, this way works just as well. 

When hooks aren’t available, one may lash a 
coil with its own end. 


7-13 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



7-28 Halyards Properly Secured 



7-29 Line Coiled and Stowed 


Artificial fiber line may be stowed wet with¬ 
out damage, but it should not be exposed need¬ 
lessly to strong sunlight for great lengths of 
time. This means that sheets especially should 
be taken down below or tucked inside sail 
covers. It will materially prolong the rope’s life, 
especially in more tropical areas. 



7-30 Lines Coiled and Stowed by Loop of Coil 



7-31 Lines Coiled and Stowed with Hitch 


7-14 









SAILING SEAMANSHIP 


7-32 Halyard Coiled and Stowed Between Mast and Self 



Belaying and Tying Up 

Making a small boat fast to the fittings found 
in the average marina isn’t hard. Like everything 
else to do with boats, however, there are more 
and less effective ways of doing it. 

The two most commonly-seen attachment 
points for boats are cleats and pilings. Making a 
line fast to a cleat is simple, if it’s done right. 
Take a full turn around the base of the cleat, 
then lead the line up and around one horn, and 
finally make a hitch, as shown, around the other 
horn. The important thing here is that first full 
turn, which allows you to undo the hitch while 
the cleated line is still under load. 

The clove hitch, described in detail above, is 
the standard way of making fast to a piling. If 
the line is to be left without someone to keep an 
eye on it, do make the small extra effort of tying 
a hitch around the standing part of the line. 



7-33 Cleated and Flemished Mooring Line 


7-15 




















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


If a boat is tied up alongside a pier, it will 
normally require only two lines for a short stay. 
One, the bow line, leads forward from the bow 
to a cleat or piling ashore; the stern line leads to 
another fitting aft of the boat. If your boat is 
large — more than about 25 feet — or if she is to 
be left for awhile, spring lines are also useful. 

The bow spring leads aft from theboaf s forward 
cleat to a pier fitting located about amidships, 
while the stern or aft spring leads from the same 
pier fitting aft to the boat’s stern cleat. 



7-34 Mooring Hitch (Clove) on Piling 


Some saltwater areas have a significant tidal 
range. If your boat is tied to a fixed pier in such 
an area you will have to use mooring lines of 
length appropriate to the predicted rise or fall of 
the tide. 

Good fenders are an important part of tying 
up properly. It’s not an exaggeration to say that 
nearly all boats have fenders that are too small. 
The easiest way to make sure yours are large 
enough is to measure the ones most used on 
boats the size of yours, then get at least three 
fenders one size larger. 



7-35 Tying Up 


Table of Suggested Anchor Sizes 


Boat length 

Anchor weight in 

pounds 


Danforth 

Plow 

Kedge 

under 17' 

4 

5 

10 

17'-20' 

8 

10 

12-15 

21'-25' 

8 

15 

15-20 

26'-30' 

13 

15 

25 

31'-40' 

22 

20 

30-35 


(for storm anchor, use one size larger in each case) 


7-16 



























SAILING SEAMANSHIP 


Working Loads of Ground Tackle Elements* 


Nylon rode Galv. chain Galv. shackle 


size 

load 

size 

load 

size 

load 

5/16" 

570 lbs. 

3/16" 

1,400 lbs. 

3/16" 

670 lbs. 

3/8" 

800 lbs. 

3/16" 

1,400 lbs. 

1/4" 

1,000 lbs. 

7/16" 

1,100 lbs. 

3/16" 

1,400 lbs. 

5/16" 

1,500 lbs. 

1/2" 

1,670 lbs. 

1/4" 

4,350 lbs. 

3/8" 

2,000 lbs. 

5/8" 

2,400 lbs. 

1/4" 

4,350 lbs. 

7/16" 

3,000 lbs. 


♦Working load of rope is 1/5 of breaking strength; working load of chain is 1/2 of breaking 
strength; working load of shackle is 1/6 of minimum strength: given shackle size is 1/16" less than 
pin diameter. 


Mooring Rig Sizes 


Boat length 

Anchor 

Chain 

Shackle 

Pennant 

under 16' 

75 lbs. 

3/16" 

1/4" 

3/8" 

17'-20' 

100 lbs. 

1/4" 

5/16" 

7/16" 

21'-25' 

150 lbs. 

5/16" 

3/8" 

1/2" 

26-30' 

200 lbs. 

3/8" 

1/2" 

5/8" 

30'-40' 

250-300 lbs. 

7/16" 

1/2" 

3/4" 


(Note: Mooring buoy can be of any convenient size, but must be capable of lifting the weight of 
chain from bottom to itself. A 12" diameter polyethylene-filled buoy will support up to 24' of 
3/16" chain or 15' of 1 / 4" chain. A 16" diameter buoy of the same material will support up to 35' of 
3/8" chain; an 18" buoy will support 60' of 3/8" chain.) 


Table of Anchor Rode Sizes 
(laid nylon line) 


Boat length 
under 14' 

15'-20' 

21'-25' 
26-30' 

31 '-40' 


Rode diameter 
5/16" 

3/8" 

7/16" 

1 / 2 " 

5/8" 


Strength (average) 
2,800 lbs. 
4,000 lbs. 
5,500 lbs. 
8,250 lbs. 
12,000 lbs. 


7-17 









































































r i 


























































Chapter 8 


Engines For Sailboats 


Why a Sailboat is a Poor Powerboat 

No matter how swift and nimble they may be 
under sail, most sailing craft handle poorly 
under power. There are a number of technical 
reasons for this, but the overriding one is that 
sail propulsion calls for a different kind of hull 
than engine-driven boats require, and on sailing 
vessels, the engine is usually described, with 
accuracy, as an auxiliary — the main 
powerplant is the sailing rig. 

Compared to a powerboat of equal displace¬ 
ment, or weight, a sailboat generally has a very 
small engine. A cruising ketch 30 feet long, with 
a displacement of 10,000 lb., will probably carry 
an auxiliary of 30 hp. A powerboat of similar 
size will have an engine three times as powerful, 
and even larger if it’s a high-speed planing boat. 

Sailboat Propellers 

Sailboat engines are designed — by and large 
— to turn a large propeller at a rather slow 
speed. For this reason, many auxiliary engines 
are geared down, so that the propeller turns at 
something like one-third the speed of the engine 
itself. The propeller may be one of several types. 
On cruising sailboats, where high performance 
under sail isn’t a factor, the propeller is usually 
three-bladed and large. The skipper accepts the 
drag penalty under sail in order to have 
reasonably good performance under power. 



8-1 Three Blade Propeller 


The sailing cruiser with some pretensions to 
speed under sail has a two-bladed propeller. 
While not as efficient for powering as a three- 
bladed wheel of similar diameter, the two- 
bladed prop can be made to lie vertically in the 
space just ahead of or behind the rudder, for 
minimum drag. 

Racing sailboats frequently use a folding 
propeller. When moving through the water with 


8-1 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




8-2 Two Blade Propeller 


8-4 Folding Propeller - Closed 



8-3 Folding Propeller - Open 


the engine off, the prop folds into a flower-bud 
shape, but when the engine is on and in gear, 
centrifugal force from the spinning propeller 
shaft opens the blades and holds them in place, 
moving the boat forward. Except for boats that 
will be raced frequently, the folding propeller is 


inefficient for simple propulsion and makes 
close-quarters maneuvering under power diffi¬ 
cult. 

Requirements of an Auxiliary Engine 

Ideally, a sailboat engine should meet certain 
criteria, but only recently have small internal 
combustion engines been developed that per¬ 
form reasonably well all that is asked of them. 

A primary requirement is that a sailboat en¬ 
gine should be compact, using up — with its fuel 
tank, battery, and wiring system — as little 
space as possible. In a daysailer, the engine 
should be light in weight, as it should be in any 
unballasted boat. It should still, however, be un¬ 
obtrusive, as the average sailor is hardly fond of 
his engine, and only wants to hear from it when 
he needs it. 

Most sailboats have very primitive electrical 
systems, at least until one considers vessels in 
the 30-foot-and-over range. The engine itself is 
the primary source of ship’s electrical power, 
there being no separate generator. Thus, the 
auxiliary should be capable of turning out 
sufficient extra electricity to light the running 


8-2 




ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 



8-5 Spark-Proof Main Switch and Switch Panel 


lights, anchor light, interior lighting system, and 
perhaps to operate a radiotelephone, depth 
sounder or radio direction finder. 

Compared to powerboat skippers, sailors are 
frequently not interested in or attentive to their 
boats’ motors. Therefore, a sailboat auxiliary 
must be very reliable, as it will get little attention 
and will often be installed in a compartment too 
damp and inaccessible for anything else. Damp¬ 
ness is of course the major enemy of internal 
combustion engines, especially those gasoline 
engines with complex electrical systems. Many 
of the best inboard engines aboard sailboats 
derive from the power used to push small 
agricultural equipment, such as tractors, where 
slow-turning motors with simple, rugged con¬ 
struction are equally desirable. 

Above all, a sailboat engine must be safe. No 
gasoline engine is safe in and of itself. Sailboat 
engines can be made rugged enough and fool¬ 
proof enough to forestall the accidents that arise 
from neglect. And more and more owners of 
larger sailing craft are turning to diesel power. 
In large part, this movement is happening 
because of the evolution of the diesel into a 
relatively lightweight engine, but probably the 
majority of skippers going to diesel power do so 
because of the relative safety of diesel fuel. 


Types of Engines Available 

It is safe to say that the majority of engine- 
equipped sailboats, like the majority of power¬ 
boats generally, are pushed by outboard 
motors. The standard outboard is a high-speed 
engine turning up 5,000 rpm. or more, which 
would seem to make it a poor choice for a 
sailboat, but the outboard has so many attrac¬ 
tive features for many sailing craft that it’s 
possible to overlook certain mechanical draw¬ 
backs. 

Ouboard engines are normally found power¬ 
ing sailboats from the smallest up to about 27 or 
28 feet (and light-weight multihulls con¬ 
siderably larger). As a general rule, outboards 
up to about five hp. are adequate for daysailers’ 
auxiliary engines, while motors from 10 to 15 
hp. are used for small cruisers. 



8-6 Outboard Mounted on Transom 


Outboards can be mounted on sailboats’ 
transoms, as they are on powerboats, and where 
a sailboat’s design permits this location, it offers 
several advantages. First, the engine, which of 
course incorporates its own steering, is easy to 
operate from a transom mount, having been 
designed for it. Second, the outboard may be 
tilted up for sailing or when the boat is moored, 
which makes for sailing efficiency in the first 
case and for a better-maintained lower unit in 
the second. Third, the motor is most accessible 
on the transom, whether for repair or for 
removal. 


8-3 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



8-7 Outboard Mounted in Well 


On some boats, however, the shape of the 
stern prohibits transom mounting or makes it 
practically inaccessible. Such boats often have 
outboard wells — usually a lazarette compart¬ 
ment with a hole in the bottom for the outboard 
lower unit, and a reinforced crossbar for the 
motor mounting clamps. An outboard well 
often looks better than a transom mount, but it 
frequently requires that the motor stay in the 
water at all times, except if the whole unit is 
unclamped and removed. In addition, many 
lazarette-type wells are rather poorly ventilated, 
causing the engine to run roughly and 
sometimes to choke on its own exhaust. 

One minor inconvenience of an outboard is 
that it usually requires a fuel of gasoline and 
lubricating oil mixed in a fairly precise propor¬ 
tion. In order to be sure of having oil when it’s 
needed, many skippers carry an extra can or two 
— which is fine, except that a can of oil is 
intended to mix with exactly a given volume of 
gasoline, usually one six-gallon tank. The un¬ 
likelihood of running out of gas with the fuel 
dock in reach makes many skippers carry either 
partially full cans of oil or — better — two gas 
cans, both of which should be of the proper de¬ 
sign for the engine. 

Until recently, only outboards of 25 hp. and 
up were electric-start and thus provided with 
generators to charge the boat’s battery. Recent¬ 
ly, however, three of the four major outboard 
manufacturers have extended electric-start to 
engines of approximately 10 and 15 hp., the 


sizes most popular for small cruisers. The gen¬ 
erating capacity offered by these outboards is 
not great, but it’s usually enough to keep the 
boat’s 12-volt battery up during the season, even 
allowing for generous interior lighting and 
frequent use of the running lights. Self-powered 
anchor lights, depth sounder, spotlight and 
radio or RDF are still indicated, however. 

An outboard’s major feature is its portability. 
Not only can it be removed during and after 
sailing, but it can also be taken to a mechanic, if 
necessary, rather than paying for a mechanic to 
come to it. The modern, medium-size electric- 
start 10 or 15 weighs about 75 lb., exclusive of 
battery or fuel tank. This means that an average 
adult can carry it at least the length of the pier to 
the family car. Smaller outboards are cor¬ 
respondingly lighter. 

Today’s outboards are far, far more reliable 
than the predecessors of even a few years ago, 
but it must be admitted that pushing a sailboat is 
not the best thing for the standard outboard. 
Two common problems with outboard aux¬ 
iliary engines are spark plug fouling at low 
speeds and cavitation. 

Most outboards are made to run economical¬ 
ly and efficiently at three-quarter throttle or 
better. Unfortunately, many sailboats achieve 
hull speed in flat water at about half throttle. 
Running an outboard for extended periods at 
half throttle or less is an invitation to fouling the 
spark plugs. While making the fuel-air mixture 
leaner (less fuel, more air) may help, a certain 
amount of fouling is built into the situation. The 
only answer is to get a motor that’s small 
enough so it needs to be run near full throttle to 
attain hull speed in calm water — which is when 
you’ll be running the engine, anyway. 

This solution is only partial, for it means that 
in rough, windy conditions your engine won’t be 
powerful enough to help the boat a great deal. It 
is true, however, that most sailboats are as 
maneuverable under sail as under power, or in 
many cases more so. Learn to dock under sail, 
even in adverse winds, and save the engine for 
getting home in flat calms. 


8-4 


ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 



Water Pump 


Starter Handle 


Flywheel 

Crankshaft 
Magneto 
Piston 


Motor 

Coverseal 


Propeller Shaft Gears 


Exhaust Outlet 

Water Inlet 
Propeller 
Propeller Shaft 


Trailering Lock 


Tiltlock 


Water Tubes 
Shift Rod 


Driveshaft 


Exhaust Housing 


8-8 Cutaway of Outboard Engine 


8-5 

































































































































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Outboard Maintenance 

The modern outboard motor requires about 
as little maintenance as any piece of marine 
equipment. Only a small amount of care is 
needed to keep your motor running smoothly — 
major accidents aside. The precise steps are 
detailed in your engine’s owner’s manual — if 
you’ve lost your copy, be sure to get another 
one, as it’s the key to good maintenance. If 
you’re mechanically inclined, your engine’s 
service manual is a good buy for a small sum. It 
will give you the full scoop on your motor and 
will advise you on tune-up and major repairs. 

While some maintenance operations for your 
particular outboard may be different, the 
following is a standard schedule for the average 
small engine. 


Exterior Lubrication 


Tilt lock mechanism^ 
Clamps 


Throttle-to-shaft 

gears 

Carburetor and 
Magneto linkages 


Every two months in 
\ fresh water 
Every month in salt 
water 


Swivel bracket 


Motor cover latch J 


Gear Case 


Every 50 hours or once 
a season 


Fuel Tank 


Spark Plugs 


Grease fuel line fittings. 
Add fuel conditioner if 
tank is stored with fuel 
in it. 

Replace annually or 
sooner as required. 


Outboard Trouble Shooting 

If an outboard — or any engine — breaks 
down in the field, you should know some basic 
techniques for elementary, on-the-spot repairs. 
These techniques don’t replace regular main¬ 
tenance, nor will they answer every problem: 
Some breakdowns require a trained mechanic 
and factory parts or service. All the same, it’s 
surprising how often a little ingenuity will get 
your motor going again or how a knowledge¬ 
able investigation will discover a situation that’s 
easily corrected. 

Problem Possible Cause/Correction 


Engine won’t start 


Starter motor won’t 
work (electric start) 


Loss of power 


Fuel tank empty 
Fuel tank vent closed 
(older motors) 

Fuel line improperly 
hooked up - check 
both ends 
Engine not primed 
Engine flooded — look 
for fuel overflow 
Clogged fuel filter or 
line 

Spark plug wires rever¬ 
sed 

Gear shift not in neu¬ 
tral 

Defective starter switch 
- sometimes gets wet 
and corrodes if 
motor is mounted 
too low 
Battery dead 
Battery connections 
loose or dirty 

Too much oil in fuel 
mix 

Fuel/air mix too lean 
(backfires) 

Fuel/air mix too rich 
Fuel hose kinked 
Slight blockage in fuel 
line or fuel filter 
Weed or other matter 
on propeller 


8-6 




ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 


Motor misfires Spark plug damaged 

Spark plug loose 
Spark plug incorrect 

Poor performance on Wrong propeller 
boat Engine improperly tilt¬ 

ed relative to tran¬ 
som. Engine should 
be vertical when boat 
is under way 
Bent propeller — us¬ 
ually accompanied by 
high level of vibration 

Improper load distribu¬ 
tion in boat 
Heavy marine growth 
on boat bottom 
Cavitation 


Gasoline-powered inboard engines, once the 
most popular in small and medium size cruising 
sailboats, have largely been replaced by out¬ 
boards aboard smaller boats and by diesel in¬ 
boards for larger auxiliaries. Still, there is a 
sizable number of skippers who prefer inboard 
gasoline engines, whether because of their fa¬ 
miliarity or because of the unpleasant smell fre¬ 
quently associated with diesels — a smell that 
can be minimized or eliminated in a proper fuel 
installation, properly maintained. 

Although inboard engines aren’t usually seen 
in boats under about 25 feet overall, very small 
gasoline-powered engines — single-cylinder, 
five-hp. models — do exist. A single-cylinder 
inboard, whether gasoline or diesel, is often a 
fairly noisy and vibratory engine, and unless it is 
a question of a special installation, a two-cylin¬ 
der outboard of the same horsepower will gen¬ 
erally be more reliable, and a good deal lighter. 


Ventilation 

The installation of a gasoline engine and fuel 
system is of vital importance, both for safety 


and efficiency. The accompanying illustrations 
detail the ventilation arrangements approved 
for auxiliary engines using gasoline as a fuel — 
these ventilation requirements apply to fuel 
tanks when electrical wiring is installed in the 
same compartment. In most cases, a sailboat’s 
engine and gas tank will be in essentially the 
same compartment, so a common set of venti¬ 
lators can be used. 

The minimum acceptable ventilation system 
to meet Coast Guard regulations calls for one 
intake and one exhaust ventilator for each 
engine/fuel compartment. A normal safe prac¬ 
tice is that the intake vent must be so positioned 
that its cowl or scoop faces forward, in clear air, 
and that its ducting, which should be of sturdy, 
temperature-resistant tubing, be at least three 
inches in diameter, and extend downward, 
without kinks or obstructions. 



8-9 Example of Ventilation Arrangement 
for Small Boats Built Before 
July 31, 1980 

The exhaust vent, with its cowl facing aft, 
should be of similar construction and size. Its 
ducting should extend to the lowest portion of 
the bilge, except that in boats — keel boats for 
the most part — fitted with bilge pumps, the 
ducting should not go so far down that its 
opening will be obstructed by normal accum¬ 
ulations of bilge water. 


8-7 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



Obviously, the ducts should be so located that 
vapors from the exhaust duct cannot flow back 
into the intake. On a sailboat, it is wise to use re¬ 
movable vent cowls that can be capped in rough 
weather. The cowls are best mounted — all 
other things being equal — on the cabin top, free 
if possible from where they will be caught by 
sheets or other lines. There should be no nar¬ 
rowing or obstruction anywhere in the system; 
but it is also a good idea to install, if possible, a 
mechanical blower in the exhaust line. This 
makes it possible to ventilate the engine and fuel 
compartment before starting the engine on 
windless days, and a properly-installed blower 
will not block the duct for normal, natural venti¬ 
lation. 

See end of this chapter for boats with gaso¬ 
line engines built after July 31, 1980 and others. 



Maintenance Requirements 

Other installation requirements for an in¬ 
board engine include accessible propeller shaft 
bearings, especially the one located where the 
propeller shaft goes through the hull. This bear¬ 
ing, called a stuffing box, does require oc¬ 


casional adjustment so that the shaft can turn 
easily while admitting as little water as possible. 
The engine should be placed as close to hori¬ 
zontal as possible — something that is fre¬ 
quently overlooked. Lubrication systems within 
the engine may fail or operate badly if the engine 
is seated with its forward or aft end too high. 

Propeller Location 

The propeller location — forward or aft of the 
boat’s rudder — will be an aspect of design over 
which the skipper has little control, once he’s 
bought the boat. Generally speaking, a prop for¬ 
ward of the rudder will steer the boat somewhat 
more effectively. If a fixed, two-bladed propel¬ 
ler is used, the propeller shaft should be marked 
to show when the two blades are in an up-and- 
down position relative to the rudder. This will 
be the most efficient sailing position, from the 
viewpoint of minimizing prop drag when under 
sail alone. With a folding propeller, it’s obvious¬ 
ly of no consequence. 



8-12 Propeller Forward of Rudder 
and Propeller Aft of Rudder 


The engine’s accessibility is of course a matter 
of some importance. The more accessible the 
better, but an engine box in the middle of the 
cabin can be both a nuisance and a source of 
noise and smell. A prospective owner would be 
wise to insist on an inboard installation that 
allows access to the carburetor, fuel line and 
filter, oil fill and spark plugs — as a minimum. 


8-8 



















ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 


The standard small inboard gasoline engine 
used in sailing craft has a number of character¬ 
istics you can count on — some good, some bad. 
To begin with, most small engines in the 5-50 hp. 
size range operate at relatively slow speeds and 
provide good power and reasonable economy. 
A 30-hp. inboard’s gasoline consumption will 
normally equal that of a 10-hp. outboard, not 
even counting the cost of the oil. 



Nearly all inboards are installed so the 
propeller shaft is in line with the rudder, and 
most have the propeller just forward of the 
rudder. Nearly all small gasoline engines are 
right-hand-turning. A right-hand-turning pro¬ 
peller, as viewed from the stern looking for¬ 
ward, turns in a clockwise direction to move the 
boat forward. This means that the boat has a 
tendency to edge to port when moving either 
ahead or astern. Going forward, the clockwise¬ 
turning prop “walks” its way to starboard, 
pulling the stem along with it and, by extension, 
pushing the bow to port. With the engine in re¬ 
verse, the propeller turns counter-clockwise, 
with the opposite effect. The stern is pulled to 
port as the boat backs. In many cases, this effect 
is very marked in reverse, and makes the boat 
virtually unsteerable; no matter which way the 
wheel or tiller is turned, the boat backs 
irresistibly to port. 

The generating capacity of a small to medium 
size inboard is not unlimited, but it should 
suffice to run all the yacht’s lights, plus radio 
direction finder, depth sounder and VHF-FM 
radiotelephone. Ideally, the boat should have 
two 12-volt batteries, one for starting and one 


for accessories, both charged by the engine’s 
generator or alternator. The batteries should 
be hooked up to a master switch that allows 
current to be drawn from either one or both at 
once. Batteries should be installed as low as 
possible, because of their weight, yet above the 
level of the bilge. Batteries must be secured in 
their own container against the most violent 
heeling the boat may encounter, and they 
should also be protected by a cover or shield 
from accidental short-circuiting caused by 
dropping a tool across the terminals. The 
battery box should also be ventilated, as rapid 
charging builds up gas concentrations. 

Inboard Trouble Shooting 

A gasoline-fueled inboard engine is basically 
the same as an outboard, but it has some prob¬ 
lems that are peculiar to its method of installa¬ 
tion. The following suggestions should cover 
most engines, but it should be emphasized that 
your best guide for trouble shooting and main¬ 
tenance is the owner’s manual. 

Problem Cause/Solution 

Starting motor will 1. Low or dead bat- 
not operate tery: turn off all elec¬ 

trical equiment and 
wait for about 30 
minutes. While wait¬ 
ing for the battery to 
recoup enough 
power to turn the en¬ 
gine over, remove 
and clean the bat¬ 
tery cable connec¬ 
tions and then re¬ 
clamp them. 

2. Defective starter 
switch: inspect con¬ 
nections for tight¬ 
ness, broken wires or 
bare wire touching 
engine. Take a test 
lamp (see Tools be¬ 
low) and place one 
lead to the ground 
post of the battery 


8-9 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 




i* - rit i. f* ». • * C* ijv 

*£&&{& 


Distributor 

Alternator 

Ventilation Duct - 
Intake 


Starter 


Temperature 
Sensor 


Ventilation 
Duct - 
Exhaust 


Fuel Filter 


Coil 


Spark Plugs 


Backfire Flame 
Arrester 
(Carburetor 
Under) 


Oil Fill 
Pipe 


Exhaust 

Manifold 


8-14 Inboard Gasoline Engine Mounted in its Compartment 


8-10 




ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 


Starting 
works, but 
will not start 


(usually the nega¬ 
tive post, but al¬ 
ways the one bolted 
to the engine frame 
or block) and the 
other lead to the pri¬ 
mary terminal (small 
wire) on the distri¬ 
butor. When the en¬ 
gine is turned over, 
by hand or starter, 
the test lamp will 
light when the igni¬ 
tion switch is in the 
“on” position and 
working properly. 

motor 1. Primary electrical 

engine circuit: Look for 
corroded, dirty, 
damaged or loose 
connections in the 
wires from the junc¬ 
tion box to the igni¬ 
tion switch, the wire 
to the coil and to the 
distributor. 

2. Secondary circuit: 
Look for broken or 
damaged wires to 
spark plugs and 
from the coil to the 
distributor cap. 
Check for moisture 
on the wires or spark 
plugs that would 
cause the spark to be 
grounded. 

3. Ignition: Check dis¬ 
tributor points to see 
if they open and 
close as the engine is 
cranked. In the max¬ 
imum open posi¬ 
tion, the opening 
should be about .02 
inches — about the 
thickness of a 
matchbook cover. 


Starting motor 
operates, spark is 
good, but engine will 
not start 


Inspect the distri¬ 
butor cap to ensure 
that the contact but¬ 
ton is in place and, if 
spring loaded, free 
to move so it can 
touch the rotor. 

4. Spark test: Hold a 
spark plug wire 
about 1/4" from the 
engine while crank¬ 
ing the engine with 
the ignition on. (Do 
not hold a bare 
wire). The capacitor 
discharge ignition 
system utilizes an ex¬ 
tremely high volt¬ 
age which would re¬ 
quire the use of non¬ 
conducting pliers or 
a testing tool which 
has been specific¬ 
ally designed for this 
purpose. If a spark 
occurs, problem is 
probably in the fuel 
system or with the 
plugs themselves. If 
there is no spark, re¬ 
move the secondary 
wire from the distri¬ 
butor cap to the coil 
and try the spark test 
again. If you get a 
spark this time, the 
trouble is between 
the coil lead and the 
spark plugs — that 
is, the distributor 
cap, rotor contact, 
plug wires and spark 
plugs. 

L Out of fuel: Always 
refuel in plenty of 
time, preferably 
when tank is still 
one-third full. Plan¬ 
ning a round trip 


8-11 



SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


with no fuel stops, 
make sure the out¬ 
bound leg is one- 
third the boat’s 
cruising range or 
less. 

2. Fuel not reaching 
fuel pump: Check 
the fuel filter or sed¬ 
iment bowl. If it is 
not filled with fuel 
and if the tank is full, 
the gas line shut-off 
may be closed or the 
line may be clogged. 
Disconnect the inlet 
side of the pump and 
blow through the 
line. 

3. Fuel not reaching 

carburetor: Make 

sure the filter screen 
is clean. If there is an 
additional filter be¬ 
side the fuel pump, 
check that, too. Dis¬ 
connect the outlet 
line from the fuel 
pump to the carbu¬ 
retor, turn off igni¬ 
tion, and see if fuel 
flows out when the 
engine is cranked. 

4. Fuel not reaching 
cylinders: Remove 
spark plugs and see 
if they are moist. If 
the plugs are dry, the 
problem may be in 
the carburetor. 
Check the main jet 
adjustment and 
open it more if pos¬ 
sible. 

5. Choke not closing 

properly: Operate 

manually. 


6. Engine flooded: 
Open the throttle all 
the way; put choke 
in non-choke posi¬ 
tion (open); turn ig¬ 
nition on; crank en¬ 
gine several times. 


More and more owners of cruising sailboats 
are turning to diesel power, because of its safety, 
its dependability and its operating economy. 
Although diesels are still far more expensive to 
buy than equivalent-horsepower gasoline 
engines, and although they are heavier than gas 
engines, diesels are now available in most boats 
from about 27' up. Diesel horsepower sizes are 
much the same as those of gasoline-powered 
engines, and auxiliaries in larger cruising vessels 
may be 60 hp. or even larger. Because diesels 
have a dual horsepower rating, it is sometimes a 
little difficult to know just what to expect from a 
given engine. The maximum continuous horse¬ 
power is what the engine will put out hour after 
hour, and is the figure of most interest to the 
consumer. Maximum intermittent horsepower 
is a higher rating but can be sustained for only 
brief periods of emergency speed. 

Diesel installation and operation is much the 
same as for gasoline engines. Because one need 
not ventilate a diesel for safety reasons, many 
skippers do not provide the kind of venting they 
would for a gas engine. This is a mistake, as a 
diesel requires considerable quantities of fresh 
air to operate properly. A diesel’s only great 
drawback, purchase price aside, is its smell — 
more correctly, the smell of its fuel. Many 
people find it considerably more unpleasant 
than gasoline, but a proper installation, good 
maintenance and careful fueling procedures can 
minimize odors. Most small diesels are left- 
hand-turning (counter-clockwise), so the stern 
will move to port — and the bow to starboard — 
when in forward gear. In reverse, the stem 
moves to starboard. 


8-12 


ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 



Oil Fill Cap 


Starter 


Oil Pump 


Oil Dip Stick - 

Oil Pickup Screen 


Solenoid Assy 


Connecting 
Rod ' 

- Cam 

Oil Pump 
Drive Gear 

Crankshaft 


Valve Spring 
Injector 

Nozzle - 


Combustion 
Chamber — 


Glow Plug — 
High Pressure 
Pipe - 


Injector 
Pump 


Rocker Arm 
Push Rod 


Valve 

Piston 


Wrist Pin 


Oil Control 
Piston Ring 


8-15 Cutawayof Diesel Engine 




































































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Diesel Trouble Shooting 

One reason a diesel is so reliable is that it lacks 
the complex electrical system required to 
provide a timed spark to a gasoline engine. 
Since electricity and the dampness of the 
nautical environment are incompatible, a sim¬ 
ple electrical system means fewer breakdowns. 

Fuel problems 1. Tank empty. 

2. Shut-off valve clos¬ 
ed. 

3. Water in fuel: Open 
drain cock in bot¬ 
tom of fuel filter. If 
there is water in the 
filter, drain it all out 
and prime the fuel 
system with the 
prime pump or by 
cranking the en¬ 
gine. 

4. Clogged or dirty fil¬ 
ters): There are us¬ 
ually at least two fil¬ 
ters in a diesel fuel 
system. 

5. Air leak in fuel sys¬ 
tem: Check connec¬ 
tions in the fuel lines 
from tank to fuel 
pump. Check gas¬ 
kets on fuel filter and 
strainer housing or 
cap. Disconnect fuel 
return line and al¬ 
low fuel to flow un¬ 
til no air bubbles 
show in the fuel. 

6. Fuel not reaching 
engine: Some en¬ 
gines have electrical 
fuel shut-offs which 
operate when the en¬ 
gine is shut down. A 
short may have clos¬ 
ed the switch. Dis¬ 


connect it and try to 
start the engine. 

7. Air in fuel lines: Use 
the prime pump to 
build up fuel pres¬ 
sure and try to re¬ 
start. 

Electrical problems Probably associated 

with starter motor. See 
“Starting motor will 
not operate” above. 

A Basic Tool Kit 

A sailor’s tools are generally associated with 
rigging adjustment. It is a good idea to have a 
separate set of tools for your boat’s engine. In 
many cases, your owner’s manual will suggest 
special tools for your engine, and many manu¬ 
facturers offer a prepackaged set of spare parts 
for their engines — an extra well worth having. 



Test lamp: available in hardware stores or 
easily made by purchasing a socket for the bulbs 
used aboard your boat and two six-foot lengths 
of wire. Uncover about one inch of each end of 
the wires; attach one end to the lamp socket and 
use the other as a test prod. Use a bulb of the 
same voltage as your boat’s electrical system. 

Wrenches: Adjustable end wrench (crescent) 

Pipe wrench 
Box end wrench set 

Pliers: Slip-joint adjustable(insulated) pliers 

Vise grips 
Wire cutting pliers 
Needle nose pliers 

Screwdrivers: Assorted regular and Phillips head 
Hammer 
Hacksaw 
File 


8-14 


ENGINES FOR SAILBOATS 





8-17 Vise Grip Pliers 


Spare Parts 

Points for distributor 

Condenser 

Coil 

Spark plugs 

Fan belt (and belts for all engine’s 
power take-offs) 

Fuel pump 

Fuel filter for diesel engines 
Fuel injectors for diesel engines 
Waterproof tape 
Hose clamps 


Ventilation Systems — 

Boats Built After July 31, 1980 

Both (1) powered and (2) natural ventilation 
requirements are in effect after July 31, 1980, for 
boats builts after that date. Some boat builders 
have been in compliance since July 31, 1978. If 
you are building a boat, check with the Coast 
Guard for details. 

1. Any compartment on a boat containing a 
permanently installed gasoline engine with a 
“cranking motor” (e.g., starter) must have a 
power ventilation system and a label close to 
the ignition switch and in plain view of the 
operator: WARNING — GASOLINE 
VAPORS CAN EXPLODE. BEFORE 


STARTING ENGINE OPERATE 
BLOWER FOR 4 MINUTES AND 
CHECK ENGINE COMPARTMENT 
BILGE FOR GASOLINE VAPORS. 

2. Other engine and/ or fuel compartments may 
require natural ventilation. 

All ventilation regulations, as in the past, 
require the operator to maintain them. 

Boats with gasoline engines not under these 
newer regulations must comply with the re¬ 
quirements discussed elsewhere in this chapter. 


8-15 



















































11 





















































Chapter 9 


Tuning and Variant Rigs 


In Chapter Four, we discussed basic rigging 
technique. In order to make your boat sail at 
peak efficiency, however, merely having the 
mast more or less upright isn’t enough. Since 
most beginners’ boats have rigid, ornon-bendy, 
masts, let’s look at the proper tuning of that type 
of rig. 



9-1 Turnbuckle 

The average small sloop has between four and 
six lengths of wire comprising its standing 
rigging system. There are the fore- and 
backstays, the masthead, or upper, shrouds on 
each side, and perhaps lower shrouds. In larger 
craft, there are more elements to the rigging 
system, but the principle remains the same — 
every piece of standing rigging exerting tension 
on the mast must be balanced in some manner, 
usually by another piece of wire leading to the 
same spot on the mast. Tightening the various 
pieces of standing rigging to make a balanced 


system is called tuning the rig, and of course the 
devices most used in exerting tension on the 
stays and shrouds are turnbuckles. 

Setting Up Rigging 

In remembering how to set up the rigging, it 
may be worth while bearing in mind the old 
adage, “the higher the wire, the tauter it is:” 
Masthead shrouds are set up most taut, and 
stays and shrouds terminating below the 
masthead are correspondingly slacker. The 
important thing, when first tensioning the 
fore - and backstays and the upper shrouds, is 
to set them up evenly, so the mast is straight as 
you sight upward along the mainsail luff track 
or groove. If you can, get off the boat and look 
directly over the stern, checking that the spar is 
straight in the boat, tilted neither to port nor 
starboard. Chances are the mast should angle 
aft a little — this is called rake, and the degree is 
usually specified in your owner’s instruction. If 
no literature exists to tell you how many degrees 
aft to rake the mast, ask some skipper 
knowledgeable in your class to help you set the 
rig up the first time. 

Normally, start with the lower shrouds being 
taut enough that there is no visible slackness. 
Bear in mind that the function of the lowers is to 
keep the bottom half of the spar from buckling 
when the load of a wind-filled sail pulls it to one 
side. When there is no side load on the mast, 
there should be no stress on the lowers. 


9-1 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



9-2 Mast Rake 


Adjusting Rigging 

Now raise the sails, cast off and sail out to 
some area where there isn’t any disturbing 
traffic. Both main and jib luffs should be taut 
enough so there is no sign of scalloping. Put the 
boat on a close-hauled course on either tack and 
check the mast (it may be necessary to do this 
from another boat the first time): Should the 
spar be straight as you sight upward, everything 
is fine. However, it’s more likely that one of the 
following problems will exist. 


1. Mast hooks forward. The forestay is too taut 
or — more likely — the backstay is not taut 
enough. 

2. The mast hooks aft. The forestay is too slack 
or the backstay too taut. 

3. The mast hooks to windward. The windward 
side upper shroud is too taut or the windward 
lower is too loose. 

4. The mast hooks to leeward. The windward 
upper is too slack or the windward lower is 
too taut. 




When adjusting turnbuckles, do so a little at 
a time. The forces created by the turnbuckle can 
be considerable. Remember to turn the center 
section of the turnbuckle, holding the upper 
part to keep it from turning as well. There 
should always be as much turnbuckle screw 
showing above the center section as below it. 

Once the mast is straight on the original tack, 
come about to a close-hauled heading on the 
opposite tack, and repeat the adjustment. Do 


9-2 









































TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 


9-5 Mast Hooked 
to Windward 



Masthead 
Hooked to 
Leeward 


Tighten 

Upper 

Shroud 



9-6 Mast Hooked 
to Leeward 


this until the spar is vertical on either close- 
hauled tack as well as at rest. You should begin 
each day’s sail by checking the straightness of 
the mast. Although the stretch of stainless steel 
shrouds and stays is negligible, the wire has a 
certain amount of slack in its construction and 
will loosen a bit, especially early in the sailing 
season. 


on which sails, clothing or skin might snag. A 
roll of waterproof tape — sold in any marine 
supply store — should be a part of your ditty 
bag (See Chapter 11). 



Lee Helm: 

Boat Heads Away 
from Wind 





Weather Helm: 
Boat Heads Up 
Into Wind and 
Stalls Out 


9-7 Lee Helm vs Weather Helm 


Lee and Weather Helm 

The average, modern small sailboat is 
remarkably well balanced, compared to boats of 
equivalent size from previous periods. Even 
so, certain adjustments may be required to 
create the optimum balance of which the boat is 
capable. 

What we mean, when we talk about balance 
in reference to a sailboat, is the boat’s ability — 
or lack of it — to sail a straight course without 
pressure on the tiller. A perfectly balanced boat 
would sail straight with no hand on the tiller 
when the sails were properly set for the direction 
and force of the apparent wind. Obviously, 
waves and weight distribution in the boat can 
upset the most neutral balance. Not so ob¬ 
viously, totally neutral balance is not normally 
considered an asset in a boat. 


When the standing rigging is adjusted to your 
satisfaction, pin the turnbuckles with cotter pins 
or rings, to keep them from backing off. Be sure 
to bend the sharp ends into the turnbuckle to 
avoid protruding snags. After you’ve done so, 
tape over any remaining sharp edges or points 


For most skippers, a perfectly balanced helm 
feels dead and unresponsive. Since most 
helmspeople sit on the up or windward side of 
the boat, a degree of imbalance that causes the 
tiller to pull against them is most comfortable. If 
you doubt this, try it yourself: sit first on the low 


9-3 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



A boat with weather helm has the Center of Effort (CE) 
(The combined effort of the headsail and main)acting 
aft of the Center of Lateral Resistance (CLR) of the 
hull underwater. The overall effect is a tendency for 
the boat to turn into the wind. 


Note that the Center of Lateral Resistance acts as the 
pivot point about which the turning force of the sails 
must be balanced by the force exerted on the rudder. 


Force must be exerted 
on tiller to counter 
turning force of Aft 
Center of Effort 




9-8 Effect of Weather Helm on Rudder 


side and try pushing against the average tiller; 
then switch. Unless you are quite unusual, you’ll 
find the slight pull of a normal helm gives you a 
better feel of how the boat is progressing 
through the water. 

If you let go of the tiller in an average boat, 
she will round up into the wind more or less 
quickly — a centerboard boat will often spin 
right up, while a long-keeled vessel may take 10 
seconds or so. Turning to windward — or to 
weather, to use the old term — when the tiller is 
released is the mark of a boat with weather 
helm. A slight amount of weather helm is not 


only advantageous for steering, it is also a safety 
factor, as the boat will head up into irons and 
stall out if an emergency causes the skipper to let 
go of the tiller. 

Some boats have weather helm all the time, 
and some have it only under certain conditions, 
as we shall see later. Other boats have the 
opposite condition, the tendency to head away 
from the wind when the tiller is released, and 
this is called lee helm. Lee helm is generally 
considered a negative attribute in a boat, as it 
makes for tiring steering and is a potential 
danger. When the tiller is released, a boat with 
lee helm will head off the wind and into a jibe. 


9-4 

























TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 


A boat with Lee Helm has the combined Center of 
Effort (CF) forward of the Center of Lateral Resistance 
(CLR) of the underwater hull. The overall effect is the 
tendency for the boat to turn away from the wind, and 
must be corrected by moving the tiller to the left, thus 
creating a force which turns the boat into the wind. 


Rudder force required 
to balance turning 
force of sails 



9-9 Effect of Lee Helm on Rudder 


Correction of Weather Helm 

Causes of excess weather helm may be 
temporary or permanent. If your boat’s tiller 
requires uncomfortable amounts of pull under 
way, or if your rudder is at an angle to the 
transom greater than about five degrees, your 
craft probably has too much weather helm. 

Temporary causes of weather helm may be 
any one of the following: 

1. Jib too small or mainsail too large for con¬ 
ditions. 

2. Jib not trimmed enough or main trimmed in 
too much. 

3. Mast raked too far aft. 

4. Centerboard too far down and forward. 


5. Too much weight forward in the boat. 

6. Boat heeled too much. 

The cures for the causes of temporary weather 
helm are, of course, implicit in the problems 
themselves. If none of the foregoing remedies 
works, then the weather helm may stem from 
something more basic to the boat. Causes of 
permanent weather helm include: 

1. The foretriangle is too small. (The fore- 
triangle is the area contained within the fore¬ 
stay, the mast and the deck). 

2. The mainsail is too large. 

3. The mast is stepped too far forward. 

4. The centerboard drops too far down. 


9-5 


























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



It may or may not be worth trying to fix these 
problems. In most small boats, 2 and 4 can be 
remedied, while 1 or 3 might be a good reason 
to sell the boat. 

Correction For Lee Helm 

Lee helm, too, is either permanent or tem¬ 
porary. Temporary causes tend, reasonably 
enough, to be the opposites of what creates 
weather helm: 

1. Jib too large or main too small for condi¬ 
tions. 

2. Jib overtrimmed or main not trimmed 
enough. 

3. Mast raked too far forward. 

4. Centerboard not dropped enough. 

5. Too much weight aft. 


Permanent lee helm problems are again the 
opposites of conditions causing permanent 
weather helm: 

1. Mainsail too small or jib too large. 

2. Mast stepped too far aft. 

3. Centerboard too small. 

Mainsail Trim 

Trim, or shape adjustment, of the mainsail 
under way is accomplished by tension on the 
three corners of the sail or by bending the mast. 
Let’s look at how and why the main is trimmed 
in this way. The basic adjustment comes from 
the halyard, which regulates luff tension and — 
if the main boom is on a sliding gooseneck — 
sail height off the deck. Sailing close-hauled, the 
mainsail luff is normally quite taut, but as the 


9-6 



















TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 



9-11 Effects of Extreme Angle of Heel 


boat comes onto a reach and then a run, the sail 
is more effective if it’s fuller or more rounded. 
Easing the halyard is one way of gaining 
fullness. 

To flatten the sail again, or to lower it on the 
mast, in case of strong winds, the downhaul 
under the gooseneck is used. To get really hard 
tension along the luff, the main is frequently 
raised as high as it will go with the halyard, after 
which tension is applied to the gooseneck 
downhaul. On mains without a sliding 
gooseneck, the same effect can be obtained with 
a Cunningham — a grommeted hole in the 
mainsail luff slightly above the foot. A hook in 
the Cunningham is pulled downward to exert 
stress on the luff and flatten the sail. 



The third adjustment point is the outhaul. 
Normally taut, the sail’s foot is slackened when 
sailing off the wind by easing the outhaul. This 


9-7 


and easing the halyard cause the main to bag 
somewhat, creating a more efficient downwind 
shape. 














































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Illustrations of Sail Twist 





9-13 Shaping the Mainsail 


9-8 









































TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 



9-14 Cunningham Rig 


Adjusting Backstay 

On some boats, the backstay tension can also 
be regulated underway, either by a sophisticated 
hydraulic tensioner or by something as simple as 
putting a wrench to the backstay turnbuckle. 
Tightening the backstay, especially on a boat 
whose forestay runs only partway up the mast, 
puts a bow in the spar, flattening the mainsail 
for upwind sailing. Off the wind, the backstay is 
eased, the mast straightens, and the main 
becomes fuller. It’s worth mentioning that a sail 
and spar must be properly designed for bending 
and flattening in this manner: Trying to bow a 
rigid spar will just damage it. 


Boom Vang 

Off the wind, a boom vang — a tackle from 
the boom down to deck or gunwale — is used to 
hold the boom down and increase sail area, and 
rigged to prevent (hence the term preventer) an 



9-15 Boom Vang 


9-9 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


accidental jibe when running directly before the 
wind. Some boats have permanent vangs rigged 
from the underside of the boom to a point at the 
base of the mast. A four or five part tackle can 
exert tremendous force on a boom, so it’s a good 
idea to go easy with the vang, using just enough 
pressure to bring the boom down parallel to the 
water. 

One disadvantage of a vang set to the 
gunwale is that it must be cast off with each jibe 
and attached to the other gunwale. An acciden¬ 
tal jibe using this type of vang would possibly 
result in a damaged or bent boom. 

Light-Weather Sails 

In addition to the average sloop’s working 
sails — her mainsail and jib — she may have any 
number of light-weather sails. The most com¬ 
mon of these is perhaps the Genoa jib. By 
definition, a Genoa is simply a jib that overlaps 
the mast. Genoas come in all sizes and shapes 
and in many cloth weights. An offshore racer 
may have as many as half a dozen such sails, 
each intended for different weather conditions. 

Genoas are often described by numbers that 
refer to their size and to the weight of the cloth 
— nearly always Dacron — from which they are 
made. A #1 Genoa is the largest, with a luff 
running the full length of the forestay and a foot 
that greatly overlaps the mast and extends just 
about back to the cockpit. A #2 Genoa is only 
slightly smaller, but is made from perceptibly 
heavier cloth. It’s hoisted when the wind is 
strong enough possibly to stretch the #1 out of 
shape. A #3 is smaller and heavier still, and the 
numbers usually run as far as #5, which is rather 
short on the luff but which still has the consid¬ 
erable overlap characteristic of Genoas. 

Luff Perpendicular (LP) 

A Genoa is also sometimes described by its 
luff perpendicular, a term derived from racing. 
Thus, we may hear a sail called “a 150% Genoa.” 
This term simply refers to a sail with a luff per¬ 
pendicular (LP) that is one-and-a-half times as 
long as the distance from the boat’s jib tack 
fitting to the forward side of the mast. The LP 
measurement itself is the straight line from the 



Genoa clew to the sail’s luff, making a right 
angle with the luff. The standard #1 Genoa, 
because of handicap rules, is a 150%, but there 
are sails that come as large as 180% (or even 
larger — the only limit is the length of the boat). 



9-10 























TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 



A Genoa’s sheets usually lead to a block 
which is mounted on a sliding car. The car rides 
in a track running fore and aft on the deck or 
gunwale. This arrangement allows a proper lead 
for nearly any size of Genoa, simply by moving 
the car forward or back along the track. The 
same sheeting rules apply to a Genoa as to a 
working jib. When you hoist the sail, pull the 
clew aft and take a line extended slightly down¬ 
ward from the sail’s miter seam for your initial 
Genoa sheet lead. Set the block at the corres¬ 
ponding position on the track. Now sail the boat 
close-hauled and observe the Genoa’s foot and 
leech. If the foot appears loose while the leech is 
stressed, it means the sheeting point is too far 
forward. If the leech is loose and the foot taut, 
the Genoa sheet block should be moved for¬ 
ward. When the leech and foot appear equally 
tensioned, luff the boat slowly up into the wind. 
The Genoa should begin to ripple all along its 
luff, and if it does, your sheet lead is correct. If 
the ripple appears first at the head of the sail, 
then the leech is still a bit too loose, and vice 
versa if the sail luffs first toward its foot. 

The sheet block on the opposite track should 
be set to match the first one. This will usually be 
the correct setting, but some slight adjustment 
may be required. This just means that your boat 
is imperceptibly out of shape, or the two tracks 
do not quite match, and is nothing to worry 
about. In many cases, the Genoa sheet is led 
from the sail’s clew through the block to a winch 


mounted on the cockpit coaming. This mech¬ 
anical aid is required because of the amount of 
pull a Genoa can create. If your Genoa has a 
very long foot, or if the winch is mounted well 
forward in the cockpit, you may be faced with a 



9-19 Jib Sheet Block 



9-20 Genoa Turning Block 


9-11 
















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


sheet that leads rather abruptly upward from 
the sheet block to the winch. In this case, you 
will need a turning block at the aft end of the 
track, so the sheet comes to the winch at the 
flattest possible angle. The turning block must 
be extra strong, as it will be taking stresses 
nearly twice those on the sheet block. If you 
doubt this fact, ask any high school physics 
student. 

For maximum efficiency, many Genoas are 
cut to be so-called deck sweepers: The sail’s foot 



9-21 Genoa Window 



9-22 Window in Main 


is in contact with the deck for nearly its whole 
length. When close-hauled, this kind of sail can 
cause a blind spot for the helmsman running 
from dead ahead to amidships on either side. 


Some skippers have their sailmaker put a trans¬ 
parent plastic window in the foot of the sail, and 
this is a help. But there’s no substitute for a 
lookout, and one of the crew should be 
specifically assigned to sit down to leeward or 
up by the tack to keep an eye out forward. 

Tacking with a Genoa sometimes offers prob¬ 
lems, as the sail drags and whips its way around 
the shrouds. After a few times out, you will 
know from exasperating experience which deck 
or rigging attachments are likely to catch the 
Genoa. These fittings should be taped smooth 
or relocated if possible. In some large boats, a 
crewmember is assigned to walk the Genoa clew 
around the shrouds when the boat tacks, but 
hopefully you won’t require this. 

There are three variants of the Genoa worth 
knowing about. These sails exist for special con¬ 
ditions which are fairly common in many parts 
of the United States, but which may or may not 
exist where you are. 



9-23 Lapper 


Lapper: The cross between a working jib and 
a Genoa. Its luff runs nearly the length of the 
forestay, but its foot only just overlaps the mast, 
hence the name. 


9-12 












TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 




9-24 Reacher 


9-25 Drifter 


Reacher: As big in area as a Genoa, but of 
lighter fabric, the reacher is usually a 180% LP 
sail with a very high foot. As the name suggests, 
it is used for reaching and is normally sheeted 
right aft to the transom or sometimes to a block 
at the end of the main boom. 

Drifter: For very light airs, when most non¬ 
racers will turn on their auxiliary engines. The 
drifter is cut like a big Genoa, but is made of 
very light nylon. It often has no snap hooks 
along the luff, being made fast only at head, tack 
and clew. 

The Spinnaker 

The light-air sail called the spinnaker is the 
queen of the racing sails. Shaped like a triangle 
with two convex sides, the spinnaker is often cut 
from brightly-colored nylon in individualistic 
patterns. It is a sail that’s often maddening to 
set, fly or lower, but no serious racing boat 
would be without one, if the sail plan and class 
rules allow it. 





9-26 Radial Head Spinnaker 


9-13 
















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Although there are a number of different 
ways to arrange the cloths of a spinnaker, for the 
purposes of this book just a few are shown. The 
sail with cloths parallel and horizontal across 
the bottom half of the sail, and an arrangement 
of triangular cloths at the top, is called a radial 
head. It’s commonly used for broad reaching 
and running. The spinnaker that appears to 
have a three-pointed star superimposed on it is a 
starcut. Relatively flatter and smaller than a 
radial head, the starcut is used downwind in 
heavy weather or for beam and close reaching in 
normal conditions. 



9-27 Spinnaker Nomenclature 


The spinnaker’s nomenclature employs the 
same words that are used to describe any 
triangular sail, but the terms are defined differ¬ 
ently. The lower edge of the sail is the foot, and 
the two sides are the leeches — until the sail is 
set, as we shall see. Likewise, the two lower 
corners are the clews and the upper corner is the 
head. 


U nlike the sails we have been talking about so 
far, a spinnaker is set flying — that is, it’s 
connected to the boat by its halyard and the 
lines from its clews, not along any one of its 
edges. A spinnaker, also known as a chute (like 
parachute), is made of ultra-light nylon with 
reinforcing patches and grommets at the cor¬ 
ners. The head grommet often has a swivel 
attached to it. 

Once the sail is raised, it assumes a position in 
front of the mainsail. The chute rides outside all 
shrouds and stays — an important point to 
remember. The sail’s windward side becomes its 
luff and the lower corner on that side is now 
called the tack. The windward side is extended 
by a spinnaker pole, which fits to the sail’s tack 
grommet or to the spinnaker guy, the control¬ 
ling line on the pole side of the sail. (The other 
line is called the spinnaker sheet.) 

Sheet and guy run back to blocks which may 
be located either at the quarters or — in very 
beamy boats — along the Genoa track and 
thence to sheet winches. These are either the 
same winches that control the genoa sheets or, 
on racers, a separate pair. The Genoa is seldom 
carried along with the spinnaker. The spinnaker 
pole is held at its inboard end to a track running 
partway up the forward side of the mast (or, in 
small boats, to a simple eye on the mast). The 
pole is usually double-ended, with identical 
spring-loaded jaws at each end and eye fittings 
for the line that suspends the pole — the 
spinnaker pole topping lift, to give it its full 
name — and the line that holds down its outer 
end is called the spinnaker pole downhaul. 

The pole topping lift runs to a halyard block 
about halfway up the mast and then down to a 
cleat on the mast itself, while the downhaul runs 
forward to a turning block on the foredeck and 
back to the mast. Thus, the pole’s height and 
attitude relative to the water can be adjusted 
from the middle of the boat. With its five 
attendant lines — halyard, sheet, guy, lift and 
downhaul — the spinnaker adds considerable 
complexity to any boat. 


9-14 






















TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 



9-28 Packing the “Chute” (Spinnaker) 


Setting A Spinnaker 

To set a spinnaker, pick first a day with light 
but steady winds and an area with little or no 
traffic. It’s a good idea to have an experienced 
sailor along, and a minimum crew of three is 
usually necessary until you become exper¬ 
ienced. First, the sail is arranged to be set from 
its bag, or from a bag-like container called a 
turtle. Spread the spinnaker out on a smooth 
clean surface, such as a dry lawn. Gather one 
edge in scalloped handfuls until the head and 
one clew grommet are together. Now do the 
same with the other two edges. Carefully stuff 
the ungathered middle of the sail into the bag, 
then insert the bunched edges on top, so the 
three corner fittings of the sail are showing at the 
top of the sail bag. 

On the boat, take the spinnaker bag forward 
and make it fast to the deck by the strap across 
its bottom. Underway on a broad reach, the sail 
bag should be located well toward the bow on 
the lee side of the foredeck, just under the foot of 
the jib (which is now set). 

Run the spinnaker sheet and guy forward to 
the bag from their turning blocks. Make sure 
that sheet and guy are outside all shrouds, stays 
and lifelines. This is crucial. Now attach the 
sheet and guy snap shackles to the clew fittings 
on the spinnaker. 



9-29 Spinnaker Bagged 



Note: Main Boom and Mainsail 
eliminated for clarity 


9-30 Spinnaker Rigging 


9-15 




















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



9-31 Setting Up for Spinnaker 


Lead the spinnaker halyard down over the lee 
side of the jib and attach its shackle to the swivel 
at the top of the spinnaker. 

Set up the spinnaker pole so it is parallel to 
the surface of the water, about halfway up its 
track, held in its horizontal position by the 
topping lift. The spinnaker guy should be run 
through the open jaw at the outer end of the 
pole. 

With the jib still raised and the boat on a 
broad reach, hoist the spinnaker from its bag. It 
will almost certainly be blanketed by the jib, 
which is quite all right. Now pull on the sheet 
and guy — being sure to take at least three turns 
of each line around the cockpit winches — until 
the spinnaker’s foot is well extended (but not 
stretched). The chute may now fill by itself, but 
drop the jib in any case. Adjust the spinnaker 
pole topping lift and downhaul to bring the 
spinnaker pole parallel to water. If the spin¬ 
naker is not filling properly at this point, make 
further adjustments with the spinnaker sheet. 



9-32 Hoisting Spinnaker 


easing or trimming it to keep the chute full. 

There is perhaps no sailing as exhilarating as 
moving well under a good spinnaker, but on 
gusty days, the big sail can take charge and drive 
the boat out of control. Until you are well used 
to the chute, leave it in its bag on days when 
reefing is a consideration. If a sudden gust does 
overtake you with the spinnaker up, simply let 
the sheet run until the spinnaker will no longer 
hold air. As a vital safety point, never put figure 
eight stopper knots (see Chapter 7) at the end of 
a spinnaker sheet, guy or halyard: The sail 
should always be capable of being fully released 
if necessary. 


As the boat is headed further up into the 
wind, the spinnaker pole must be trimmed 
further forward and the sheet further aft. With 
most spinnakers, the sail cannot be carried when 
the apparent wind is forward of the beam, but 
some starcuts can be effective on a very close 


9-16 











TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 



9-33 Jibing With Spinnaker 


Now detach the pole from the spinnaker guy 
and snap it to the mast fitting. Adjust the pole 
downhaul to bring spinnaker pole parallel to 
water. As all this is taking place, jibe the main¬ 
sail. And there you are. Just remember that after 
the jibe, the sail’s nomenclature changes: The 
line to which the pole end fitting is snapped is 
now the guy, the other line has become the sheet, 
and the respective corners of the spinnaker are 
the tack and the clew. 


reach. A Genoa is both easier and safer, 
however, and is often just as effective or even 
more so. 

A moment’s thought will tell you that it’s im¬ 
possible to tack with spinnaker up. You can, 

however, jibe the boat. It is easier than it looks. 

With the boat on a dead run, detach the 
spinnaker pole at its inner end from the mast 
and reattach it to the spinnaker sheet. 


9-34 Shifting Spinnaker Pole 


9-35 Jibe Complete - Pole Needs Adjustment 


9-17 







SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



9-36 Dropping Spinnaker 


Dropping the spinnaker should be easy, as 
long as you don’t allow the lines to become 
fouled. The halyard especially should always be 
carefully coiled (see Chapter 7) once the sail is 
raised. Head the boat off on a broad reach, raise 
the jib, and the spinnaker should collapse 
behind it. Reach under the foot of the jib until 
you can grab the spinnaker clew and pull the sail 
into the boat, while slacking off the halyard. 

If the chute doesn’t die when the jib is raised, 
simply change headings a bit until it does. Try to 
keep the spinnaker from falling in the water and 
beware of any sharp-pointed or edged fittings 
that might tear this very delicate sail. Take it 
below and bag it immediately. 


Variant Rigs 

Although most small boats are sloops or cat- 
rigged craft, you’ll see a number of vessels with 
slightly different rigs. The sloop or single-sail rig 
is probably best for the beginner, but it’s inter¬ 
esting to understand what makes other types of 
boats go and why variant rigs exist. 

The most common two-masted yachts are 
ketches and yawls. The classic definition of each 
is: 


Ketch: A two-masted sailing vessel in which 
the forward mast, called the mainmast, is the 
larger, and the after mast, the mizzen, is stepped 
forward of the rudder post. 


9-37 Ketch 


9-18 






TUNING AND VARIANT RIGS 




9-38 Yawl 


Yawl: A two-masted sailing boat with a large 
mainmast and a small mizzen aft of it. The 
mizzen mast of a yawl is stepped aft of the 
rudder post. 

While these definitions are accurate as far as 
they go, they are not terribly helpful in iden¬ 
tifying a ketch from a yawl at a distance, or in 
suggesting why these are really two quite 
different types of boats. 

Ketch 

A true ketch is a genuine two-masted boat in 
which the sail area of the jib and the mizzen 
combined are approximately equal to the area 
of the mainsail; in modern ketches, the jib is 
usually somewhat larger than the mizzen. The 
rig came about because, beyond a certain point, 
a sail becomes too big for one person to handle, 
even with mechanical aids like winches. 
Dividing the sail area makes for less aero¬ 
dynamic efficiency but easier handling, which is 
why a ketch is usually a cruising boat, and is 
seldom seen in lengths under about 30 feet. 


Yawl 

A yawl, on the other hand, is really a sloop 
with a small balancing sail well aft. Many yawls 
race — and the yawl is essentially a racing rig — 
with or without the mizzen. Off the wind, both 
ketch and yawl can set a mizzen staysail, a large, 
light-air sail that is set flying from the mizzen 
masthead and sheeted to the end of the mizzen 
boom. The staysail’s tack is on deck, more or 
less amidships at the foot of the mainmast — 
thus it’s a sail that’s often as large as the main¬ 
sail, and far easier to control than a spinnaker, 
as it is entirely within the boat. 

The mizzen sail itself is often dropped when 
the staysail is up, and it is little or no use when 
close-hauled in any case. When running, a 
ketch’s mizzen will often blanket the mainsail, 
unless it can be set on the opposite side of the 
boat. 



9-39 Cutter 


9-19 










SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Cutter 

Also seen from time to time is the single- 
masted cutter, whose spar is stepped anywhere 
from 40% to 50% of the deck length back from 
the bow. A cutter normally sets three sails — the 
main, which is smaller than on a sloop of com¬ 
parable size; the forestaysail (staysail for short), 
which is often self-tending and set on a staysail 
boom; and outside and forward of it, the jib, 
which is often a high-cut sail set on a tack 
pendant, a length of wire running from the jib 
tack to the deck. 

A cutter has several advantages over a sloop: 
In stormy weather, the jib can be dropped or 
roller-furled (see Chapter 5) and the boat sailed 
with main and staysail. To tack this abbreviated 
rig, one simply puts the tiller over — each of the 
two boomed sails is self-tending. In light 
weather, the cutter can drop its staysail and set 
from the jibstay a truly immense drifter or 
reaching jib. Disadvantages of the cutter are 
extra cost and more things to break or go awry. 


Schooner 

The schooner is a rig associated with 
America, although it did not originate on this 
side of the Atlantic. Most schooners today — 
the few remaining — are two-masted vessels of 
some size with the mainmast aft and the smaller 
foremast forward. A three-masted schooner’s 
masts are the fore, main and mizzen. The 
schooner is a complex and inefficient rig except 
off the wind, and having its largest sail aft, the 
mainmast usually winds up blocking the cabin. 
Its proponents argue that a schooner is the fast¬ 
est of the rigs on a reach, which may or may not 
be true, and is easy to handle short-handed. 

Most schooners are gaff-rigged on the main 
and foremasts, though some have marconi 
mainsails and gaff foresails, and there are other 
arrangements possible. Off the wind, a schooner 
may set a big fisherman staysail in the space 
between fore and main. No matter how ineffi¬ 
cient she may be compared to a modern sloop, a 
schooner driving along on a reach is a splendid 
sight. 



9-40 Schooner 


9-20 



Chapter 10 


Trailer Sailing 


The average small sailing cruiser meanders 
along at about four knots. Ten hours of sailing, 
given a decent wind, and you’re 40 miles from 
where you started. Or look at the price of 
marina accommodation for a small sailboat — 
even assuming the berths are available. By 
fitting your boat with a trailer, you can start 
your sailing vacation 500 miles from your usual 
cruising grounds, visit places you’d normally 
never see, avoid the costs and hazards of 
marinas — and, at the season’s end, store the 
boat alongside your home, where you can work 
on her through the winter months, as the 
weather allows. 

Trailer sailing has become increasingly pop¬ 
ular in recent years. Its techniques are firmly 
based on those developed by outboard skip¬ 
pers, and much of the equipment was devised 
for owners of 16- to 20-foot power skiffs with 
one or two big motors clamped to the transom. 
The skills that serve them are largely adaptable 
to sailboats, but they must be revised for quite 
different kinds of boats. 


The Trailerable Boat 

The first requirement is a suitable boat, with 
one of the few absolute limiting factors being 
width. For trailering without a special permit, 
the maximum width of the rig is eight feet. Most 
manufacturers and designers will go out of their 



10-1 Trailerable Keel - Centerboard Hull 


way, when a design’s natural beam is approx¬ 
imately eight feet, to make sure that it falls 
within the trailerable limit. Although boats over 
30 feet have been built with an eight-foot beam, 
the maximum length of most trailerable sail¬ 
boats is under 25 feet. Most centerboard day- 
sailers are easily trailerable. 

It’s obvious that hull shape is also a major 
factor. The ideal hull from a trailering point of 
view is flat-bottomed or gently rounded, with no 
protrusions, and this kind of hull is virtually 
required if you’re going to launch at a municipal 
ramp or off a beach. Even the vestigial keel of a 
standard cruising centerboarder can pose con¬ 
siderable problems when selecting a trailer. The 


10-1 




SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


rollers on the trailer are often designed for the 
much flatter conformation of an outboard hull, 
and it may not be possible to adjust them high 
enough to support your boat properly. If in 
doubt, get in touch with the dealer who handles 
your boat, and if he doesn’t know, have him ask 
the manufacturer. Chances are that a standard 
brand of trailer was in the designer’s mind when 
he drew the plans for the boat. All else failing, 
it’s possible to replace the rollers of a standard 
trailer with bunks or bolsters, which may be as 
simple as segments of 1" x 6" or 1" x 8" padded 
with carpeting. It makes launching more dif¬ 
ficult, but it will work. 

The Trailer 

Width and length aside, highway re¬ 
quirements for a trailer to be towed at high 
speeds are fairly serious. These requirements fall 
into two general categories — what’s legally 
necessary, and what is derived from common 
sense. Legal requirements are still changing 
rapidly in many areas, as more and more states 
turn their attention to the dangers inherent in 
trailering. Consult your state police and your 
motor vehicle bureau for up-to-the-minute in¬ 
formation. 

Your trailer will probably require license 
plates and lights. If possible, get a rear light and 
license plate set that’s demountable, so you can 
remove them before backing the trailer into the 
water. Lights like this normally clamp to the 
boat’s transom. No lighting system made can 
resist repeated immersion, despite what a 
manufacturer may claim. You’ll also require 
turn indicator lights and, if your rig nears the 
eight-foot maximum, side lights as well. Pay 
special attention to the electrical plug and 
socket arrangement connecting the car’s light 
system to the trailer. The wiring should be under 
no stress, should be as weatherproof as possible, 
and should not sag or loop so it can get caught in 
machinery or drag along the ground. 

Brake requirements vary greatly from state to 
state, but the American Boat & Yacht Council 
recommends that trailer manufacturers offer 
brakes of some sort for all wheels of trailers 
designed for a gross weight of 1,500 lb. or more. 



10-2 Typical Electrical Connector 


Legal requirements can be met in many areas by 
any one of the three common brake systems — 
electrical, hydraulic or surge. The first two are 
integrated into the tow vehicle’s own system, 
and are accepted anywhere. The surge brake, 
which is activated by the trailer’s own momen¬ 
tum and which is not under the driver’s control, 
is outlawed in an increasing number of states. 
Your trailer’s brakes should operate automat¬ 
ically when the towing car’s service brakes are 
applied, and should continue to operate even if 
the trailer separates from the tow car. 

Towing Hitches 

Like brakes, towing hitch attachments come 
in three common types. In ascending order of 
capacity, they are the bumper hitch, which 
fastens directly to the tow vehicle’s bumper 
and which is illegal in many states; the frame 
hitch, which bolts to at least two of the towing 
vehicle’s structural members — frame or unit¬ 
ized body/bumper; and the weight distributing 
hitch, a complicated mechanical device that uses 
leverage on both car and trailer to distribute the 
load evenly and keep the towing vehicle even 
with the ground. A frame hitch can be used for 
gross trailed weights — trailer and load — up to 
3,500 lb. or so, beyond which a weight dis¬ 
tributing hitch is virtually mandatory. 

The key point in the hitch itself is the ball and 
socket connector between the towing vehicle 
and the trailer, respectively. For some reason, 
there are two sizes of towing balls — 2" diameter 
and 1 7/8" — and they are not interchangeable. 
They are also close enough in size so that you 
can’t expect to eyeball the difference. Too large 


10-2 



TRAILER SAILING 




10-5 Attaching Safety Chain 


10-3 











SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



10-6 Crossing Second Chain Under First 



10-4 




TRAILER SAILING 



10-9 Outboard Chained to Transom 
and Drain Plug in Place 


a ball won’t fit the socket; too small a ball can 
spring free from the socket’s automatic clamp. 
The American Boat & Yacht Council 
recommends use of the 1 7/8" ball for gross 
loads up to 2,000 lb., and the larger ball for 
heavier weights. Among your trailer-gear 
spares, you should carry an extra ball, in case 
wear or turning stresses force yours out of 
roundness. Like all trailer bolt fittings, the ball 
should be secured by a lock nut. 

Safety Chains 

The final legal requirement in most states is 
safety chains. These consist simply of a pair of 
chains ending in S-hooks and running from the 
tongue of the trailer to the towing hitch. The 
chains are crossed under the hitch in such a way 
that if the ball and socket fail, the trailer tongue 
won’t hit the ground, dig in and cause a somer¬ 
sault. The chains should be just long enough to 
permit free turning and should be hooked with 
the S facing back toward the trailer, to prevent 
their jumping free. Although S hooks are 
acceptable, it is safer practice to use a shackle 
and safety wire in place of the S hook. 

The chains themselves should be of welded 
steel, with a working test load equivalent to that 
of the trailer’s recommended gross weight, 
which is marked on the trailer itself. Although a 


single length of safety chain, looping through 
the eyes on the trailer tongue, may be used, indi¬ 
vidually-attached chains provide an extra safety 
factor. For obvious reasons, the chains should 
never be made fast to a fitting common with the 
ball. 

The most important aspect of all is the 
trailer’s support of your boat’s hull. Even sturdy 
fiberglass boats can be badly wrenched out of 
shape if they’re not braced at critical points. The 
problem is that no roller supporting system can 
act wholly correctly on a hull that was designed 
to be supported evenly at all points by water. 
You have to do the best you can with what’s 
available, and there are a few things to watch 
out for. 



10-10 Roller Supporting System 


Support Points 

For most hulls, vital support points are the 
forefoot, the keel, the turn of the bilge (especial¬ 
ly where interior weights are concentrated) and 
the transom. Any other spot where a specially 
heavy downward force is exerted on the hull 
should also be braced from below when the hull 
is fully seated on the trailer. In the general cate¬ 
gory of concentrated weights you can include 
retractable keels or weighted centerboards, 
water and fuel tanks, batteries and engines. If 
your boat has an inboard engine, then this is an 
absolutely overriding weight concentration that 
must be carefully braced beneath the engine bed 
stringers. 

On most commercial trailers, the rollers and 
bolsters are adjustable, both up and down and 
fore and aft, and the winch column and wheel 
assemblies can also be moved along the frame. 
Given a trailer of adequate length and width. 


10-5 




SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


therefore, it should be possible to adjust the 
various elements of the frame and the supports 
to match the boat with some precision. 
Remember to be careful when adjusting any 
element that has a matching component on the 
boat’s other side: An inch or so of fore-and-aft 
difference between the wheels can make a 
serious riding problem for the whole rig. 

Tires 

A trailer’s tires and wheels undergo far more 
strain than do the ones on your car. Not only are 
a trailer’s wheels smaller to begin with, turning 
at far higher speeds, but they are also subject to 
immersion, often in corrosive salt water. Maxi¬ 
mum tire load capacity and pressure are marked 
on the tire itself. These pressures are consider¬ 
ably higher than those of the tires on your family 
car. You should carrry a tire pressure gauge and 
check your trailer’s tires frequently. If you err, it 
should be on the side of more air in the tires, not 
less: Low air pressure in small, high-speed tires 
causes them to heat up faster and fail sooner. 


The Winch 

Under way on the open road, a trailed boat is 
subject to a type of rapid motion that it will 
never encounter on the water. Not only should 
every unattached piece of gear in the trailed boat 
be firmly secured, but the boat itself should be 
firmly lashed in place. The primary point of 
attachment is forward, at the trailer winch. If 
you plan to launch and recover off the trailer 
with some frequency, this winch is an especially 
important piece of equipment. It’s usually an 
extra-cost option, so you have some choice as to 
type. 

r t 

Your winch should have an anti-reverse gear, 
so the boat can’t escape, and unless the boat is 
very light, the standard rope on the winch 
drum should be replaced with stainless steel 
wire. For larger cruisers, geared winches and 
electrical winches running off the car’s battery 
are available. The winch drum should be 
mounted, if possible, approximately on a line 
with the towing eye on your boat’s bow when the 
boat is fully cradled. If there’s no towing eye, the 



10-11 Winch Cable Hooked to Eye of Stem 


angle of pull from the bow chocks should be 
slightly downward. 

Don’t expect the winch alone to hold the bow 
in place. An additional wire cable, preferably 
with a turnbuckle, should connect the boat’s 
stem to the winch pillar. There should also be a 
non-stretching strap across the after part of the 
boat — webbing like what’s used for auto seat 
belts or hiking straps will do well enough, but 
pad the hull or wood trim directly under the 
strap with old carpeting to preserve gel coat 
and varnish. A pair of spring lines — these can 
be your boat’s dock lines — should be run aft 
from the bow cleat to the trailer frame about 
even with the wheels. 


Important extras, after a winch and brakes, 
include the following: spare trailer wheel, bear¬ 
ing grease and a complete set of wheel bearings, 
bulbs for the trailer’s lights, a jack that suits the 
trailer’s frame, a set of long-handled wrenches 
for tightening the various body bolts regularly, 
outside mirrors for the towing vehicle, flares, 
trouble flag and trouble light. If your rig is very 
heavy, you may also want to consider booster 
brakes and heavy-duty shock absorbers for the 
towing car. 


10-6 


TRAILER SAILING 



10-12 Trailer Tongue Jack and Dolly Wheel 

Proper Loading 

Balancing the load on your trailer is really the 
key to successful towing. What it amounts to is 
adjusting the boat’s gross weight — that is, the 
boat and her contents — so that the load on the 
trailer tongue is somewhere between five and 
seven percent of the total gross weight of the tow 
— boat + contents + trailer. For the average 
small passenger car, the weight at the tongue 
shouldn’t be much more than 100 lb. Working 
backward, that indicates a gross weight of 2,000 
lb. as the maximum an ordinary sedan should be 
asked to pull. If you’re in doubt about the 
towing capabilities of your car, check with the 
dealer. 

To measure tongue weight, load the boat 
(which is on the trailer) with the gear she would 
normally carry on the road. Then stack two or 
three cinder blocks under a set of bathroom 
scales and ease the trailer’s tongue down on this 
makeshift platform. If the weight involved is 
over about 75 lb., consider fixing an accessory 
dolly wheel to the tongue. 

If the weight at the trailer tongue is much 
more than the recommended maximum, the tow 
car will have too much load behind and be hard 
to handle at speed. If the tongue weight is too 
little, the trailer is likely to fishtail. What you 
want, then, is the happy medium. If you’re pull¬ 
ing a load over about 4,000 lb., by the way. 



10-13 Mast Padded at the Rack and Transom 


you’ll want a tandem, or four-wheel, trailer as 
well as a special towing vehicle. 

Before setting out, you should check the items 
loaded in the boat to be sure they are properly 
secured in place. Make certain also that no one 
has tossed in last-minute items that can signifi¬ 
cantly alter the trailer’s balance. Check also that 
the trailer’s bolts are all tightened up: They can 
work loose slowly and insidiously. Check boat 
tie-downs, trailer lights and brakes: Spare a 
moment to make certain that the car-to-trailer 
umbilicals will stay put under way. 

The mast and boom should be firmly lashed 
down, preferably in a padded rack. Some 
makers of trailerable boats supply just such a 
fitting, but you can usually rig one yourself. The 
standing and running rigging should be bund¬ 
led together and tied to the spar at intervals so it 
can’t work loose. If you travel rough roads or 
long distances, consider a covering for at least 
the winch cluster at the base of the spar and the 
sheave arrangement at the masthead, just to 
keep highway dirt out. If the mast protrudes aft, 
it should have a red flag lashed to its end. 

Obviously the rudder will have been removed 
before trailering, if it’s removable. A bracket- 
mounted outboard can stay on the boat and is 
probably safe enough, as long as the transom is 
supported directly beneath the motor. If your 


10-7 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



10-14 Front Hitch 


boat has a swing keel or a weighted center- 
board, it should be lowered until it rests on a 
frame cross-member. This will save a lot of wear 
on the centerboard pennant and a certain 
amount of stress on the hull as well. 

Under way, remember that you’ve got a long, 
heavy, awkward tail behind you. This sounds 
very obvious, until you see someone pulling a 
trailer cut in ahead of you, oblivious to the fact 
that his vehicle is 20 or 25 feet longer than 
normal. 

Start your towing car slowly, in low gear, and 
take it up through the speeds gently and 
smoothly. Think twice about passing other cars, 
but if you decide to pass, pick a spot and go — 
don’t hesitate. When rounding corners, swing 
wide, after having checked traffic just behind 
and alongside you. 

Remain sensitive to any unusual sounds or 
handling factors, and if you notice anything at 
all out of the ordinary, pull over at once and 
check. If fact, you should get off the road and 
check out the entire rig every hour or so — look 
for high temperatures in the wheel bearings, 
loosening tie-downs, slacked-off bolts, brake 
and turn lights, tire pressure and car engine tem¬ 
perature. 


Launching 

Before you attempt a real launching, put in a 
couple of hours some Sunday in a supermarket 
parking lot, learning how to line up and back the 
trailer effectively. Have someone help you by 
acting as a guide, and develop a set of simple 
hand signals. Backing a trailer is a lot easier than 
docking, but it does take practice. If you have an 
exceptionally heavy or unwieldy rig, consider 
buying a front bumper hitch: With this acces¬ 
sory, you can make the launch while moving the 
towing vehicle forward, and close-quarters 
maneuvering will be a lot simpler. 

When launching, try to avoid getting the 
trailer hubs in the water. If you can’t avoid im¬ 
mersing them, at least let them cool off first, or 
the heat will simply suck the bearing full of 
water. One way to pass the time while waiting 
for the trailer wheels to come down from high¬ 
way temperatures is by stepping the mast in the 
parking lot. Before you try this, check to be sure 
there are no low power lines or other overhead 
obstructions between you and the launching 
ramp: Many municipal ramps were laid out for 
outboard skiffs, not masted vessels. 

Raising the Mast 

Many sailboats usually have some form of 
tabernacle for raising the mast. This is essen¬ 
tially a mast stepped on a hinge, and most of 
them are so arranged that the mast swings up 
from astern. Smaller boats, of course, don’t re¬ 
quire this kind of fancy gear, and the mast goes 
into the normal step guided by a crewmember, 
as described earlier in this book. 

Masts that pivot up and forward are simple to 
raise, but require a fair amount of muscle power 
from the crew. With the mast in its hinged taber¬ 
nacle, attach the upper shrouds and the back¬ 
stay and tie a pulling line — a good, thick one, 
comfortable to the hand — to the forestay just 
above the turnbuckle. As one person stands in 
the cockpit and raises the spar, the other crew¬ 
member at the bow, who should be the stronger 
of the two, if there’s a difference in strength, 
pulls on the forestay extension. 


10-8 


TRAILER SAILING 



10-15 Mast Step on Hinge 


If the boat is very small and light, the person 
raising the spar should stay out of the boat while 
doing it, which is not easy. As the mast 
approaches the point where 1 the person aft can 
exert no more lift, it may be necessary to tie off 
the forestay extension until the cockpit hand 
can get around forward to help pull. Until 
you’re used to the stresses involved, don’t take 
anything for granted: Even a light mast can 
exert an enormous pull at certain acute angles. 

The mast may, in some cases, swing up and aft 
from the bow. The spar thus lies flat over the 
foredeck after being made fast in its tabernacle. 
In this case, make fast the upper shrouds and the 
forestay first. Then attach the boom to its 
gooseneck at right angles to the mast, where it is 
held by the topping lift and temporary guys to 
the deck at either side. To raise the mast, you 
simply employ the four- or five-part mechan¬ 
ical advantage of the mainsheet tackle system, 
amplified if necessary by the genoa sheet winch. 

Launching & Recovery 

Before launching (or recovery, for that 
matter), make sure that there is nothing pro¬ 
truding down from the boat to snag on the 
trailer frame. The outboard should be raised 
and locked, and the centerboard or swing keel 
should be pulled all the way into its well and the 
pennant lashed. Although some professionals 
like to back the trailer fast down the ramp and 
shoot the boat off by braking suddenly, this is 



10-16 Mast Tabernacle 


not a good idea, as too many things can go 
wrong too fast. 

Back slowly down until the boat’s stern is 
afloat, then ease her off the trailer. A person 
ashore should hold a bow line while this is being 
done. When launching, never turn the car’s 
engine off. If you have an automatic transmis¬ 
sion, it should be in park with the brake set while 
you work the boat on or off. If the trailer’s 
wheels do get wetted down, repack the bearings 
with grease. It doesn’t take long and is a lot 
easier than changing a burnt-out bearing on the 
road home. 

When the boat is on her trailer for any length 
of time, get the weight off the trailer suspension 
and wheels. Jack up the trailer frame and 
support it with cinder blocks, shimmed up if 
necessary with pieces of planking. Once the 
frame is fully jacked up, check underneath to be 
sure that the boat is still evenly supported — the 
frame can be easily and imperceptibly wrenched 
out of shape during the jacking process. 

Although this seems complicated, in fact it is 
not, if you approach trailering in an orderly, 
plan-ahead fashion. The equipment has been 
developed to a high pitch of efficiency and the 
techniques tested over years and miles of use. 
The only thing to watch out for is taking too 
much for granted and failing to anticipate what 
might go wrong and then forestalling it. 


10-9 





SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



10-17 Backing Down the Launch Ramp 




10-20 Beginning Recovery Process 


10-10 












































TRAILER SAILING 



10-21 Boat Recovered and on Trailer 





10-22 Preparing to Lower the Mast 


10-23 Lowering the Mast 


10-11 




































Chapter 11 


Equipment for You and Your Boat 


Although governmental authority dictates, to 
a certain degree, what equipment you must 
carry aboard your boat (see Chapter Six), the 
extent of those legal requirements is very 
narrow. Dealing only with safety-related equip¬ 
ment, the Coast Guard’s regulations do not 
cover all safety gear — only certain vital items 
that apply to all people or all boats of a certain 
type. Even an obviously desirable item like an 
anchor is subject to so many variables in 
selection that it would be impossible to put 
together a workable regulation. 

Beyond the regulations themselves, it’s still 
possible to have a boat that’s basically 
seaworthy, meets all the legal requirements plus 
the suggestions of the Courtesy Marine 
Examination (see page 6-10), and still operate a 
vessel that isn’t safe. Safety on a boat is largely a 
state of mind, not a shopping list. Beyond 
having the proper gear, one must maintain it 
and know how and when to use it. And beyond 
that state is the knowledge of true seamanship 
— when the skipper may assume a risk, but does 
so in the knowledge of what’s involved and the 
reasons for doing it. 

The equipment dealt with in this chapter is 
mostly safety-related, but in the larger sense it’s 
all conducive to a higher standard of 
seamanship, and thus a better-sailed, more 
effective boat, whether it’s being raced or 
cruised. 


Personal Gear 

Having a well-equipped boat starts with a 
well-equipped crew. And the equipment in¬ 
cludes virtually all the clothes on one’s back (not 
to mention one’s head and feet). Let’s begin by 
considering what the well-dressed sailor wears 
— and more important, why. 

Although it shouldn’t detract from one’s 
enjoyment of sailing, or any other watersport, 
it’s important always to remember that water is 
an element that’s basically hostile to humans. 
Nearly all the dangers associated with being on 
or in the water can be avoided by taking a few 
precautions. Most experienced sailors stay out 
of trouble without conscious thought, because 
of childhood training or experience; new sailors 
have to make an effort, until seamanlike 
behavior becomes second nature. 

Unfortunately, talking about safety afloat has 
a negative effect on many people. It’s under¬ 
standable. You go out on the water to have fun, 
even to be adventurous, not to “be safe.” As it 
happens, good seamanship (which is the same as 
skillful seamanship) is based on not taking 
needless personal chances. One of the oldest 
rules of seamanship is one hand for the ship, one 
for yourself. 

Hand in this connection should be generaliz¬ 
ed to include all the gear that makes you a more 
alert, more effective sailor — clothing, personal 


11-1 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


rescue equipment, safety gear that’s part of the 
boat itself. 



11-1 Non-Skid Boat Boots 


Shoes and Boots 

Begin at the bottom, with deck shoes. On a 
small sailboat, you’ll be standing seldom if at all, 
but many experienced sailors wear shoes 
anyway. Why? Every boat is literally studded 
with small, sharp fittings that seem to have been 
expressly designed as toe-stubbers, whatever 
their other functions. In addition, in small boats 
one frequently goes over the side while 
launching or recovering the boat from beach or 
trailer. Thanks largely to human carelessness, 
lake and bay bottoms today are coated with 
sharp-edged trash. 

Sailors whose feet are frequently wet during 
the course of the sailing day usually opt for 
sneakers with non-skid soles and uppers of some 
artificial, rot-proof fabric such as Dacron or 
nylon. Crewmembers aboard larger boats have 
a wider choice, and many prefer moccasin-style 


shoes that can be kicked off in an emergency. In 
cold weather, over-the-sock boots can be most 
welcome — but it’s a good idea to get them large 
enough to fit properly over two pairs of socks. 

Whatever style of shoe or boot appeals to 
you, make sure it has a non-skid boating sole — 
which may consist of any one of half a dozen 
different patterns of slits, treads, ridges or 
suction cups. Complement this by making sure 
your boat’s deck is non-skid. Most stand-on 
surfaces aboard today’s production fiberglass 
boats have molded-in non-skid patterns. 
Sometimes, however, the pattern doesn’t cover 
a place that you frequently find yourself stan¬ 
ding on. This is especially true aboard cruisers, 
where parts of the cabin roof may not be skid- 
proof. 



11-2 Non-Skid Tape on Deck 


It’s easy to buy self-stick non-skid tape for 
these areas. Or if you paint your deck, most 
paint firms sell a non-abrasive non-skid com¬ 
pound that can be added to deck paint. 
Cheapest of all — but hard on clothing and skin 
— is a handful of sand in the deck paint. 

Head and Hands 

At the other end of the body, your head 
deserves the best protection you can give it. 
Boating caps and hats are available in virtually 
any shape, but a few things are worth bearing in 
mind. First, a hat or cap’s primary function is 
usually to protect you from sun. On most boats, 


11-2 






EQUIPMENT FOR YOU AND YOUR BOAT 



11-3 Spinnaker Hat 


a flexible brim at least in front and preferably all 
the way around will be most comfortable. Many 
light-colored caps — which are much cooler — 
have dark-tinted under sides to their brims, to 
reduce glare off the water. 

If your boat’s rig is one that makes the boom a 
menace to your skull at every tack and jibe, a 
padded cap is a good idea, and centuries of 
design have failed to improve upon the old- 
fashioned sailor’s watch cap, made of wool or 
synthetic. The double- or triple-rolled brim 
affords head protection and can, in cold 
weather, be pulled down to cover the ears and 
neck. 

Hands are another vulnerable point, especial¬ 
ly early in the season before callouses have time 
to form on tender palms. Ordinary cotton 
painters’ gloves are most sailors’ choice for hand 
protection — they’re relatively warm, dry quick¬ 
ly, and when (as will sooner or later happen) 
they’re lost overboard, the financial jolt isn’t 
unbearable. Many skippers carry half a dozen 
pairs aboard, in several sizes. If you don’t wear 
gloves — or even if you do — trim your 
fingernails off short: Long nails have a great 



11-4 Watch Cap 


likelihood of being snapped when furling sails 
or handling lines. 

Other Clothing 

For the rest of your person, clothing will 
depend on weather. If your boat has any dry 
stowage lockers at all, it pays to carry aboard 
some old, warm clothing — a sweatshirt and 
warm trousers at least — for each crewmember, 
in addition to what he or she may be wearing. 
This is especially important aboard cruising 
craft, where one may be out in the weather for 
an extended period. 

It also pays to learn the layer method of 
dressing in changeable spring and fall sailing. 
Start off with a warm, heavy layer under which 
is a lighter layer that’s still reasonably presen¬ 
table, so you can peel or put on clothes as the 
conditions demand. And, as every experienced 
sailor knows, it’s far, far better practice to take a 
little trouble and stay warm and dry, rather than 
trying to regain that state. Once you’ve been 
wetted through in a boat, getting really dry 
again usually means going ashore, unless yours 
is an exceptionally large and well-equipped 
cruiser. 


11-3 







SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Foul Weather Gear 

And staying dry means foul weather gear. 
Good waterproof clothing is extremely expen¬ 
sive, but it’s worth the money. If you sail in 
anything but a board boat, where being wet is 
wholly unavoidable, you should have a first-rate 
set of foul weather gear. Most experienced 
sailors prefer a jacket-style top with a draw¬ 
string hood and cuffs that can be snapped tight 
to keep at least the major part of the spray from 
running up the sleeves. Pullover styles are dryer 
than the kind that open down the front, but are 
harder to get into. A jacket with a plastic zipper 
(far better than any metal closure) and a 
waterproof, snap-equipped flap to cover it is the 
most practical for most people. Good, big 
pockets with snap or zip closures are another 
must. 



11-5 Foul Weather Gear With Sailor’s Vest Over 



11-6 Wet Suit 

Where cold-weather sailing is a way of life, 
the so-called float-coats are very nice. These 
jackets are not wholly waterproof, but they have 
to be very thoroughly wetted down for soaking 
to occur. In addition, some contain enough 
foam flotation to serve as Coast Guard- 
approved personal flotation devices, thus ser¬ 
ving two needs with a single garment. 

Foul weather trousers are never fashionable¬ 
looking, but the kind that keep the wearer dry 
are loose-fitting and usually at least high enough 
to reach the bottom of the rib cage. Since few 
people have an indentation at this point, 
suspenders are required to hold the trousers up. 
As with jackets, foul weather trousers keep you 
dry, but they often cause perspiration. To keep 
from being soaked on the inside, wear at least 
one extra layer of moisture-absorbing clothing 
in addition to street (or deck) clothes. 

All this gear can make one feel clumsy and 
awkward. Practice at moving about in foul 
weather clothing will dispel part of this feeling, 
but if you sail one of the small, high- 
performance boats where nimbleness is really 
vital, you may be better served by wearing an 
ordinary skindiver’s wetsuit instead of foul 


11-4 



EQUIPMENT FOR YOU AND YOUR BOAT 


weather clothing. Sailors’ wetsuits are 
sometimes padded at wear points — seats, 
elbows, knees. In addition to the suit, you’ll 
want a life vest specifically designed for activity. 

Life Vests 

The Coast Guard has approved many styles 
of these vests, but they are all basically much the 
same, consisting of slabs of high-flotation 
closed-cell foam encased in cloth or net cover¬ 
ing. The vest is usually closed in front by a non- 
corrosive zipper and sometimes by a belt as well. 
Although there is a certain amount of ad¬ 
justability for shape with straps at waist and 
shoulders, these life vests are much more closely 
related to the individual wearer’s size than are 


to wearing life vests, but if one considers them 
garments and if the skipper has his crew put 
them on as a matter of course when conditions 
warrant, it becomes less of a chore and more of 
an accepted thing. 

As sailors and sailing authorities are only just 
realizing, cold is perhaps as big a danger as 
drowning to most people on the water — and a 
far less obvious menace. The effects of extreme 
or prolonged cold, technically known as hypo¬ 
thermia, are now undergoing serious study by 
the Coast Guard and many concerned sailing 
people. Although much remains to be 
learned, some facts are already glaringly ob¬ 
vious. Without going into detail, hypothermia 
causes a gradual, imperceptible slowing down of 



11-7 Sailor’s Life Vest 


the bulkier life jackets. 

Most experienced skippers buy this sort of 
closely-sized life vest for each member of the 
regular crew, and mark it with his or her name; 
standard, bulky-style vests are carried for 
guests, in adult, large child (45-90 lb ) and small 
child sizes. It’s hard for many people to get used 


bodily and mental function ending in uncon¬ 
sciousness and, if not reversed, death. The great 
danger of hypothermia is that the victim is 
usually unaware that anything’s happening to 
him or her. As one becomes more affected by 
cold, simple tasks take longer to accomplish or 
even understand. 


11-5 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



The onset of hypothermia varies widely with 
individuals. Generally speaking, somewhat 
overweight people are less quickly affected than 
thin, wiry ones, but there are enough exceptions 
in either direction to make broad statements 
risky. Only by keeping warm and observing the 
actions of fellow crewmembers can one spot the 
first slowing down of reactions. If one’s boat is 
spilled, unless it can be righted quickly, it’s best 
to conserve one’s body heat by not struggling 
without reason. Clothing that is not actually 
dragging one down will serve to retain some 
heat even when soaked — and it may well hold 
air and thus buoyancy as well. 

The popular technique known as “drown¬ 
proofing” is especially unfortunate, for it leads 
to the loss of heat at an accelerated rate. The 
best defense, once in the water, is to cling to 
some floating object while assuming a crouched 
or huddled position to retain heat. 

Other Boat Equipment 

' The Offshore Rating Council, a non-govern¬ 
mental body that supervises international dis¬ 
tance sailboat racing, has issued its own list of 
equipment and construction standards for 
racers in four different categories of offshore 
races. One thing to bear in mind is that racers, 
unlike most other sailors, carry on as long as it’s 
at all possible, so the equipment list is put 
together with that attitude considered. The 
resume that follows is a somewhat edited ver¬ 
sion of the ORC’s 1973 regulation. After each 
item appears the number 1, 2, 3 and/or 4. 


These stand for categories of race — 

1 being long-distance contests where boats 
must be self-sufficient for days at a time; 

2 longshore races where boats should be able to 
take care of themselves, but where help 
should be available within a few hours at the 
outside; 

3 consists of races in protected water or along 
shore, including races for small cruising craft; 

4 short races in warm or protected waters. 

Skipper s Responsiblity 

The safety of a yacht and her crew is the sole 
and inescapable responsiblity of the skipper, 
who must do his best to insure that the yacht is 
fully equipped, thoroughly seaworthy and man¬ 
ned by an experienced crew who are physically 
fit to face bad weather. He must be satisfied as to 
the soundness of hull, spars, rigging, sails and all 
gear. He must insure that all safety equipment is 
properly maintained and stowed and that the 
crew know where it is kept and how it is to be 
used. 

Neither the establishment of these special reg¬ 
ulations, their use by the sponsoring organiza¬ 
tions, nor the inspection of a yacht under these 
regulations in any way limits or reduces the 
complete and unlimited responsiblity of the 
owner. 

It is the sole and exclusive responsibility of 
each skipper to decide whether or not to start or 
continue to race. 


Basic Standards 

Hulls of offshore racing yachts shall be self- 
righting, strongly built, watertight and capable 
of withstanding solid water and knockdowns. 
They must be properly rigged and ballasted, be 
fully seaworthy and must meet the standards set 
forth herein. 

“Self-righting” means that a yacht must have 
a positive righting arm when the masthead, with 
main and foresail set, touches the water. 

“Properly rigged” means that the shrouds are 
never to be disconnected. 


11-6 



EQUIPMENT FOR YOU AND YOUR BOAT 





m 


11-9 Sailor’s Gloves 


All equipment must function properly, be 
readily accessible and be of a type, size and 
capacity suitable and adequate for the intended 
use and the size of the yacht, and shall meet 
standards acceptable in the country of registry. 


Cockpit drains adequate to drain cockpit 
quickly but not less in combined area (after 
allowance for screens, if attached) than the 
equivalent of two 1" (2.5 cm) diameter drains. 
3,4. 


Structural Features 

Hatches, companionways and ports must be 
essentially watertight, that is, capable of being 
strongly and rigidly secured. Cockpit compan¬ 
ionways, if extended below main deck level, 
must be capable of being blocked off to main 
deck level. If cockpit opens aft to the sea, the 
lower edge of the companionway may not be 
below deck level. 1,2,3,4. 

Cockpits must be structurally strong, self¬ 
bailing and permanently incorporated as an 
integral part of the hull. They must be essential¬ 
ly watertight, that is, all openings to the hull 
below the main deck level must be capable of 
being strongly and rigidly secured. 1,2,3,4. 

Cockpit drains adequate to drain cockpit 
quickly but with a combined area (after allow¬ 
ance for screens, if attached) of not less than the 
equivalent of two 1" (2.5 cm) diameter drains. 
Yachts built after 1-1-72 must have drains with a 
combined area (after allowance for screens, if 
attached) of not less than the equivalent of four 
3/4" (2.0 cm) drains. 1,2. 


Storm coverings for all windows more than 
two square feet in area. 1,2,3. 

Sea cocks or valves on all through-hull open¬ 
ings below LWL, except integral deck scuppers, 
shaft log, speed indicators, depth finders and the 
like; however, a means of closing such open¬ 
ings, when necessary to do so, shall be pro¬ 
vided. 1,2,3. 

Soft wood plugs, tapered and of various sizes. 
1,2,3,4. 

Lifelines and Pulpits 

Fixed bow pulpit (forward of headstay) and 
stern pulpit (unless lifelines are arranged as to 
adequately substitute for a stern pulpit). Pul¬ 
pits and stanchions must be through-bolted or 
welded, and the bases thereof must not be 
further inboard from the edge of the working 
deck than 5 percent of maximum beam or 6 
inches (15 cm), whichever is greater. The head of 
a stanchion must not be angled from the point of 
its attachment to the hull at more than 10 


11-7 





SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


degrees from vertical throughout the length. 
Taut double life lines, with upper life line of wire 
at a height of not less than 2 feet (60cm) above 
the working deck, to be permanently supported 
at intervals of not more than 7 feet (2.15m). A 
taut lanyard of synthetic rope may be used to 
secure lifelines, provided that when in position 
its length does not exceed 4 inches (10cm). 
Lower lifelines need not extend to the bow 
pulpit. Lifelines need not be affixed to the bow 
pulpit if they terminate at, or pass through, 
adequately braced stanchions 2 feet (60 cm) 
above the working deck, set inside of and over¬ 
lapping the bow pulpit, provided that the gap 
between the upper lifeline and the bow pulpit 
shall not exceed 6 inches (15 cm). 1,2,3. 

Yachts under 21 feet, as above, but with a 
single taut lifeline not less than 18 inches (45 cm) 
above the working deck, and a bow pulpit and a 
stern pulpit (unless lifelines are so arranged as to 
adequately substitute for a stern pulpit) to the 
same height. If the lifeline is at any point more 
than 22 inches (56 cm) above the rail cap, a 
second intermediate lifeline must be fitted. If the 
cockpit opens aft to the sea additional lifelines 
must be fitted so that no opening is greater in 
height than 22 inches (56 cm). The bow pulpit 
may be fitted abaft the forestay with its bases 
secured at any points on deck, but a point on its 
upper rail must be within 16 inches (40 cm) of 
the forestay on which the foremost headsail is 
hanked. 1,2,3. 

As above except that a stern pulpit is not 
required, provided the required height of life¬ 
line must be carried aft to at least the midpoint 
of the cockpit. 4. 

Ballast and Heavy Equipment. Inside ballast 
in a yacht shall be securely fastened in position. 
All other heavy internal fittings such as 
batteries, stoves, gas bottles, tanks, outboard 
motors, etc., shall be securely fastened. 1,2,3,4. 

Accommodations 

Cooking stove, permanently installed with 
safe accessible fuel shutoff control. 1,2. 

Cooking stove, capable of being safely 
operated in a seaway. 3. 


Water tanks, permanently installed and 
capable of dividing the water supply into at least 
two separate containers. 1. 

At least one permanently installed water 
tank, plus at least one additional container 
capable of holding 2 gallons. 2. 

Water in suitable containers. 3,4. 



11-10 Fire Extinguishers Must Be 


Coast Guard Approved 

General Equipment 

Fire extinguishers, readily accessible and of 
the type and number required by the country of 
registry, provided there be at least one on yachts 
fitted with an engine or stove. 1,2,3,4. 

Bilge pumps, at least two, manually oper¬ 
ated, one of which must be operable with all 
cockpit seats and all hatches and companion- 
ways closed. 1,2. 

One manual bilge pump operable with all 
cockpit seats, hatches, and companionways 
closed. 3. 

One manual bilge pump. 4. 

Anchors, two with cables except yachts rating 
under 21 feet, which shall carry at least one such 
anchor and cable. 1,2,3. 

One anchor and cable. 4. 


11-8 



EQUIPMENT FOR YOU AND YOUR BOAT 




11-11 Flashlights 


11-12 Compass - Direct Reading 



Flashlights, one which is suitable for signal¬ 
ing, water resistant, with spare batteries and 
bulbs. 1,2,3. 

At least one flashlight, water resistant, with 
spare batteries and bulb. 4. 

First aid kit and manual. 1,2,3,4. 

Foghorn. 1,2,3,4. 

Radar reflector. 1,2,3,4. 

Set of international code flags and inter¬ 
national code book. 1. 

Shutoff valves on all fuel tanks. 1,2,3,4. 


Navigation Equipment 

Compass, marine type, properly installed and 
adjusted. 1,2,3,4. 

Spare compass. 1,2,3. 

Charts, light list and piloting equipment. 
1,2,3. 

Sextant, tables and accurate time piece. 1. 

Radio direction Finder. 1,2. 

Lead line or echo sounder. 1,2,3,4. 

Speedometer or distance measuring instru¬ 
ment. 1,2,3. 

Navigation lights, to be shown as required by 
the International Regulations for Preventing 


Collision at Sea, mounted so that they will not 
be masked by sails or the heeling of the yacht. 
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . 


Emergency Equipment 

Emergency navigation lights and power 
source. 1,2. 

Special storm sail(s) capable of taking the 
yacht to windward in heavy weather. 1,2. 

Heavy weather jib and reefing equipment for 
mainsail. 3,4. 

Emergency steering equipment. 1,2,3. 

Tools and spare parts, including a hacksaw. 

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . 

Yacht’s name on miscellaneous buoyant 
equipment, such as life jackets, oars, cushions, 
etc. Portable sail number. 1,2,3. 

Marine radio transmitter and receiver, with 
minimum transmitter power of 25 watts. If the 
regular antenna depends upon the mast, an 
emergency antenna must be provided. 1. 

Radio receiver capable of receiving weather 
bulletins. 2,3,4. 


11-9 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



Safety Equipment 

Life jackets, one for each crew member. 
1,2,3,4. 

Whistles attached to the life jackets. 1,2,3. 

Safety belt (harness type) one for each crew 
member. 1,2,3. 

Life raft(s) capable of carrying the entire crew 
and meeting the following requirements: 1,2,3. 

Must be carried on deck (not under a dinghy) 
or in a special stowage opening immediately to 
the deck and containing life raft(s) only. 

Must be designed and used solely for saving 
life at sea. 

Must have at least two separate buoyancy 
compartments, each of which must be auto¬ 
matically inflatable, each raft must be capable 
of carrying its rated capacity with one compart¬ 
ment deflated. 

Must have a canopy to cover the occupants. 

Must have been inspected, tested and ap¬ 
proved within two years by the manufacturer or 
other competent authority; and 


Must have the following equipment ap¬ 
propriately secured to each raft. 

1 Sea anchor or drogue 

1 Bellows, pump or other means for maintaining 
inflation of air chambers 
1 Signaling light 
3 Hand flares 
1 Bailer 

1 Repair kit 

2 Paddles 
1 Knife 

Provision for emergency water and rations to 
accompany raft. 1. 



11-14 Rigging Knife With Marlinspike 

Life ring(s), at least one horseshoe type life 
ring equipped with a waterproof light and 
drogue within reach of the helmsman and ready 
for instant use. 4. 

At least one horseshoe type life ring equipped 
with a self-igniting high-intensity water light 
and a drogue within reach of the helmsman and 
ready for instant use. 1,2,3. 

At least one more horseshoe type life ring 
equipped with a whistle, dye marker, drogue, a 
self-igniting high intensity water light, and a 
pole and flag. The pole is to be attached to the 
ring with 25 feet (8 m) of floating line and is to be 
of a length and so ballasted that the flag will fly 
at least 8 feet (2.45 m) off the water. 1,2. 


11-10 


EQUIPMENT FOR YOU AND YOUR BOAT 


Distress signals to be stowed in a waterproof 
container and meeting the following require¬ 
ments for each category, as indicated: 1,2,3,4. 
Twelve red parachute flares. 1. 

Four red parachute flares. 2,3. 


Four red hand flares. 1,2,3,4. 

Four white hand flares. 1,2,3,4. 

Heaving line (50 foot (16m) minimum length, 
floating type line) readily accessible to cockpit. 
1,2,3,4. 


11-11 









































































































Chapter 12 


Sailboat Piloting 


Introduction 

All navigation, from the most elementary to 
the most complex, involves two things — 
determining the present position of one’s ship or 
plane, and directing that vehicle from one 
known position to another. Navigation is fre¬ 
quently described as both an art and a science; 
it’s an art because of the skills and techniques 
required, and a science because it’s based on the 
systematic application of physical laws. 

In a basic text like this, we only have space to 
deal with the essentials of one branch of the 
larger subject — coastal navigation, often 
referred to as piloting. As the name suggests, 
this subject involves directing the movements of 
a ship or boat along the coast, by using visible 
landmarks ashore, navigational aids, and 
soundings (measurements of the sea bottom’s 
depth and composition). Although piloting isn’t 
generally considered as complex or demanding 
as the two other kinds of navigation, electronic 
and celestial, it isn’t necessarily easier, if only be¬ 
cause there is less elbow room for mistakes in 
shallow, rock-strewn coastal waters. 

Sailboat navigation is of course based on the 
same principles that hold true for other vessels, 
but because sailboats are relatively so slow, they 
are more affected by current (the horizontal 
movement of water caused by tide or wind). In 
addition, sailboats have greater draft than 


powerboats of equivalent length, and as a result, 
sailboat navigators are especially sensitive to 
tide, the vertical rise and fall of the water level, 
which obviously has an effect on depth. 

Navigation as practiced aboard modern 
ocean-racing sailboats is a truly scientific art (or 
artistic science) functioning at a high level, aided 
by instruments of great accuracy. For most oc¬ 
casional sailors, however, navigation is a much 
rougher and simpler operation, carried out in an 
open cockpit or on a slanting dinette table, with 
rather variable results. 

This chapter is addressed to that sometime 
navigator, to the skipper or crewmember who 
merely wants to be able to find his or her way 
from place to place with tolerable accuracy, if 
not with pinpoint precision. Having mastered 
the material in this section, one must then go 
out on the water and use it. If there is any key to 
offhand navigation, it’s practice. 

The tools required are minimal, and one 
should avoid heavy investments in equipment 
until the basic techniques are well in hand. What 
you will need aboard your boat will vary 
according to your stowage space and the con¬ 
ditions under which you’ll be working, but here 
is a list of the initial gear, most of which is 
described in fuller detail later in the chapter: 


12-1 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



12-1 The Pilot’s Basic Instruments 


Charts of the area in which you sail; 

A good-quality magnetic compass; 

Binoculars, 7x35 or, if you have room, 7x50; 
Parallel rules or course protractor; 

Dividers, for measuring off distance; 

Pencils, preferably medium-soft #2. 

The Nautical Chart 

Maps are what make serious navigation 
possible, and a map has been defined as “a 
symbolic picture of a portion of the earth drawn 
to scale.” A nautical chart is only a map that 
emphasizes features useful to the mariner — the 
shape of the coastline, landmarks visible from 
the sea, manmade aids to navigation, and 
depths. 


Today’s chart is a technological marvel, 
containing as much information as several large 
books. This compression is possible in part 
because of the use of symbols that stand for 
various objects that can’t be represented on a 

i' 

29th Ed., Sept. 4/76 

12273 

(formerly C&GS 1226 ) 

LORAN-C OVERPRINTED 

12-2 Chart Number, Edition and Date 


12-2 














SAILBOAT PILOTING 


(MLLW) 

Lower 

Extromo 

Motor 

Low Wotor 

ot 

foot 

0 

-25 

O 

-25 

0 

-2 5 



UNITED STATES-WEST COAST 

CALIFORNIA 


GULF OF THE FARALLONES 


CAUTION 

Ttarine rodiobeacon* have been calibrated for 
use. Limitations on the use of certain other 
gnals as aids to marine navigation can be 
n the U S. Coast Guard Light Lists and 
e Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center 
ion H O 117 (A&B) 

o direction-finder bearings to commercial 
sting stations are subject to error and should 
with caution. 

in positions are shown thus: 


Mercator Projection 
1:100,000 at Lat. 37°46' 


SOUNDINGS IN FATHOMS 

(FATHOMS AND FEET TO ELEVEN FATHOMS) 
AT MEAN LOWER LOW WATER 


:urate location) o(Approximate location) 


For Symbols and Abbreviations see Chart No. 1 


NOTE E 

NITIONS DUMPING AREA- 
tESTRICTION 

ised or designated for U S chemical 
Such use has been discontinued 
irea in no way constitutes authority 


AUTHORITIES 

Hydrography and topography by tho National Ocean Survey (formerly the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey) with additional data from the Corpa of Engmeera. Geological Survey 
and U S Coast Guard 


HEIGHTS 


12-3 Chart Title, Type of Projection, Scale of the Chart and Datum of Soundings 


chart in a scaled-down version of their true 
shapes. We’ll come back to the symbols used on 
a chart in a while, but first let’s consider the 
kinds of charts available to the American 
coastal sailor. 

Charts of U.S. waters are prepared and 
published by the National Ocean Survey (NOS), 
and free catalogs are available directly from that 
organization (Distribution Division, C44, 
National Ocean Survey, Riverdale, MD 20840); 
these catalogs are also provided by authorized 
chart sales outlets, which include map stores, 
major boatyards and marine dealers. Charts are 
only as good as the information on them, and 
because that information changes, you should 
be sure to buy and use up-to-date charts. It pays 
to get new charts every couple of years, and 
when an area is subject to frequent change 
because of soft bottom, strong tides and the like, 
to check at the local chart outlet every year to 
see if a new edition of your local chart has been 
issued. 



12-4 A Typical Small Craft or Folio Style Chart 


12-3 

















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


A valuable and reliable source of information 
concerning changes to charts, navigational aids, 
channel conditions, and hazards to navigation is 
the Local Notice To Mariners. These notices are 
disseminated by either Broadcast Notices, Local 
Notices, and/or Weekly Notices. Urgent notices 
concerning changes or deficiencies in aids to 
navigation are issued by means of radio broad¬ 
cast. The Local Notice, aimed primarily at the 
boater in local waters, is mailed and can be ob¬ 
tained free of charge by application to the Com¬ 
mander of the Coast Guard District in which the 
boat is principally operated. The Weekly Notice 
to Mariners is intended for those mariners who 
will be sailing over a much wider geographical 
area and is also free of charge. It is published by 
the Defence Mapping Agency. 


Generally speaking, charts are classified ac¬ 
cording to scale. This term simply refers to the 
size of an object on the chart relative to its size in 
reality: A harbor may be one inch wide on your 
chart. If the chart’s scale is 1:20,000, the harbor’s 
actual width is 20,000 times charted size, or 
more than 1,650 feet; but if the chart scale is 
1:40,000, the same inch-wide representation 
stands for a harbor that’s well over 3,000 feet in 
width. 


Charts of harbors or inlets are usually 
rendered in 1:20,000 scale, and sometimes 
1:10,000. Coastwise charts, embracing stretches 
of shoreline that contain several harbors, are 
1:80,000. The name of the chart gives the area it 
covers — Long Island Sound — Eastern Part, 
for instance, or Tampa Bay. Special folio-style 
charts, known as Small Craft Charts, are 
published for areas having much small-boat 
traffic, the theory being that the format — 
several fold-out segments stapled together in 
protective covers, with tidal and facility infor¬ 
mation — is easier to use in the confined cockpit 
of a skiff or daysailer. Small Craft Charts are 
1:40,000 in scale. 

Obviously, high-seas craft use charts that are 
much smaller in scale than the ones described 
here, over 1:1,000,000 in some cases. (A small- 


scale chart is one in which features are presented 
in smaller size and less detail than on a 
large-scale chart.) As a rule of thumb, the casual 
navigator should carry a chart on which the en¬ 
tire projected voyage can be encompassed, as 
well as larger-scale charts for any bays or 
harbors he might have to enter. In practical 
terms, a day-sailor’s afternoon cruise will sel¬ 
dom require more than one large-scale chart, 
and even a harbor chart will usually be quite 
comprehensive enough for serious piloting. 

If yours is a largely open boat, you will want 
to protect your chart by encasing it in a 
transparent plastic cover that will allow you to 
lay the chart out flat in the open, without fear of 
its being damaged by spray or rain. Although 
charts are printed on specially-treated paper, 
they are not improved by being wetted. 






(Excerpt from Typical 
Tide Table) 

9 0003 -0.9 
SU 0610 4.6 
1226 -0.9* 
1831 4.8 


High Tide 




Mean High Tide (Charted) 


Mean Low Tide (Charted) mm . mi 

Low Tide 


-0.9 Ft Below Mean Low 



12-5 Tide — the Vertical Movement of Water 

Datum and Sea Level 

One technical term requires definition for you to 
get the most from your chart: Datum refers to 
the base line from which a map’s vertical 
measurements are made — heights of land or 
landmarks or, in the case of a chart, depths of 
water. Most landsman’s maps use sea level as a 


12-4 













SAILBOAT PILOTING 


1 


Ground 

2 

S 

Sand 

3 

M 

Mud; Muddy 

4 

Oz 

Ooze 

5 

Ml 

Marl 

6 

Cl 

Clay 

7 

G 

Gravel 

8 

Sn 

Shingle 



Buildings and Struct 


1 m—i r 

(la) # O 



2 


3 

3a 

4 

5 ■ ^ □ 



City or Town (large scale) 
City or Town (small scale) 
Suburb 
Village 

Buildings in general 

Castle 

House 


12-6 Symbols for Quality of the Bottom 
from CHART NUMBER 1 

datum, and that’s quite good enough for them. 
But to a sailor, the depth of the water is vitally 
important, and that depth is constantly chang¬ 
ing. 

On a nautical chart, water depth is measured 
downward from sea level, while the heights of 
landmarks are given in feet above sea level. But 
because of tide, which changes sea level in salt¬ 
water areas on a regular basis, some allowance 
must be made on the chart for the fact that the 
depth isn’t always the same. 

Tidal rise and fall is reasonably predictable, 
so chartmakers have selected a given point in the 
tidal cycle as the one at which heights and 
depths are measured. For safety’s sake, depth 
measurements (called soundings) are noted on 
the chart as of low water (or low tide) — the 
point in the tide’s cycle when there will be the 
least depth at a given point. On the East Coast of 
the United States, the tidal datum is Mean (or 
normal) Low Water; on the Gulf Coast the 
datum is GULF COAST WATER DATUM; 
the actual low water depth on any given day in a 
month will vary somewhat from this figure ac¬ 
cording to a number of factors. 

On the Pacific Coast, there are two high tides 
and two low tides each day, as on the Atlantic 
and Gulf of Mexico, but on the West Coast one 


12-7 Symbols for Buildings and Structures 
from CHART NUMBER 1 

set of daily tides is markedly higher than the 
other. Thus, the datum on Pacific Coast charts 
is Mean Lower Low Water, or the lower of two 
average low tides. 

Depths of water are usually given in feet on 
U.S. charts, but some older, small-scale charts 
show soundings in fathoms (1 fathom r 6 feet). 
The kind of measurement, the scale and the 
datum are prominently noted on each chart. 
Besides depths, charts also note the type of 
bottom, using any of a number of abbreviations, 
the more common of which are shown here. 
This information is especially useful when 
trying to select a place to anchor, as good 
holding ground — sand or hard mud — is an 
essential aspect of a safe anchorage. 

Obstructions and dangers in the water are 
also charted, and symbols tell the mariner what 
to be ready for. It is worth bearing in mind that a 
wreck, even one that’s largely exposed, soon 
ceases to look much like the ship it once was, 
and may be difficult to recognize. 

As a rule, shallow water is tinted light blue on 
a chart, while deeper water is white. This allows 
the navigator a ready, visual reference without 
having to look at each charted sounding. You 
should learn to relate the shallow-water blue tint 
to your own boat’s draft. 


12-5 












SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Buoys and Beacons 

• (set* Vie» era 1 Remarks i 

* I § § P § P § P P $ new standard symbols) 

/ o • Approximate position of buoy 

t IT 

§- 

0 

y "" Bifurcation buoy (RBHB) 

P f ^ ^ J 

£ £ V & h £ t A- Light buoy 

i/S 


0 

y " Junction buoy (RBHB) 


t/9 

§~ 

0-r 

0-r Isolated danger buoy (RBHB) 

r ± aBE ll y BELL ^ bell Bell buoy 








0 

Wreck buoy 

t in Qr,QH r , V jONG •_*__• GONG Gong buoy 

i20 

pG 

A 

; G 

£ f f (RBHB or G) 

t/ P kVW/5 p wh/S “ Whistle buoy 

\20n 

Pc 

0 r 

: g 

Obstruction buoy (RBHB or G) 

f.j Q C O'■ czl Can or Cylindrical buoy 

1 21 

P Te. 

P T„ 

Telegraph-cable buoy 

■ii Q '■ p '• <oi Nun or Conical buoy 

22 



-~b. J.. Mooring buoy ( colors of moor¬ 
ing buoys never earned) 

+7 P 0 p Spherical buoy 

22d 



Mooring 


22b 

w 

V WL 

__ Moormg buoy with telegraphic 

t«y Q P / (• Spar buoy 




communications 


12-8 Symbols for Buoys and Beacons from CHART NUMBER 1 


Charted Details 

Charted features ashore include prominent 
structures, especially ones that stand out 
because of their recognizable shape (such as 
churches and water towers); land contours are 
frequently charted; bridges of all types are listed 
in detail, The vertical clearance of a bridge, 
however, is based on Mean High Water, so that 
some factor of safety is included in the printed 
chart. The navigator should remember that 
buildings only appear on the chart when some¬ 
one tells the chartmaker to put them there; con¬ 
versely, a structure that was once prominent 
enough to chart may have been destroyed or 
screened by a larger building while it still 
appears on a chart. That’s why aids to naviga¬ 
tion are far more reliable to use as landmarks. 

The actual shoreline contour itself is one of 
the chart’s most important features. Once tint¬ 
ed pale yellow, now gold, land sometimes ap¬ 
pears as light green, if it’s swampy or if it covers 
and uncovers with changes in water level. 

Aids to Navigation 

Manmade structures, both fixed and floating, 
serve as signposts, beacons, direction signals 
and warnings of dangers to the mariner. Aids to 
navigation, placed and serviced by the U.S. 


Coast Guard, occur either in patterned groups 
that indicate a channel, or path of deep water, or 
as individual aids that serve as warnings of 
isolated dangers or points of special 
significance. 

The small-boat sailor will normally find 
himself using aids to navigation as individual 
recognition or reference points, but owners of 
larger, fixed-keel vessels will often need to keep 
within a channel’s boundaries in order to stay 
afloat. Even if you don’t regularly use the 
channels for their intended purpose, you ought 
to know what the various floating aids (collec¬ 
tively called buoys) and fixed markers mean. 

The accompanying diagrams illustrate a 
simplified channel system. Some points about it 
should be emphasized. 

1. There is no functional difference between 
lighted and unlighted buoys or between 
buoys and fixed aids, although simpler and 
less costly aids are used where they are 
adequate for the purpose. 

2. The only significant buoy shapes are the 
cylindrical cans and the cone-topped nuns: 
The former mark the left-hand side of a 
channel going from open water toward an 
anchorage or smaller body of water; nuns 
mark the right-hand side. 


12-6 










SAILBOAT PILOTING 



12-9 Simplified Channel System 

3. Significant buoy colors are red and black. 
Although cans are generally black and nuns 
red, buoys of varied shape may be either 
color. The thing to remember is that red aids 
mark the right side of inbound channels, 
black the left. Red-and-black horizontally 
striped buoys mark obstructions in the 
channel or channel junctions. Black-and- 
white vertically striped buoys mark inlet 
entrances or mid-channel. 

4. Red lights go with red aids; green lights 
appear on black aids. White lights may be 
placed on aids of any color. 

5. Light patterns tell you, in some cases, not 
only which buoy you’re looking at, but what 
it does. Most aids use very simple flashing 
patterns. The more complex multi-colored 
patterns identify major lighthouses. 

6. Aids are numbered from open water toward 
sheltered water, with “ 1 ” or “2” being the first 
buoy in a channel series. A new channel 
branching off a main channel will begin a 
new series of buoy numbers. Red-and-black 
and black-and-white buoys are not 
numbered at all. 


7. Sound-producing aids — all lighthouses and 
many buoys are equipped with sound-pro¬ 
ducing instruments to aid in identification in 
low visibility. Diaphones, diaphragm horns, 
sirens, whistles, and bells are used to give 
each aid a distinctive sound to facilitate 
identification. Bells, gongs and whistles are 
activated by wave action and will not work in 
flat water. Atmospheric conditions at times 
alter some sounds on the water and may 
cause certain tones to be inaudible or varied. 



12-10 Basic Symbol for a Buoy 

Obviously, aids to navigation — except for 
major lighthouses — are far too small to appear 
on the chart in their true shape. Instead, 
symbols are used to indicate the position, type, 
number and color of aids. A chart on these 
pages shows how the more common symbols 
relate to the buoys for which they stand. 

The actual location of an aid to navigation is 
the small dot or circle (dot on older charts, small 
circle on newer ones) at the bottom of the 
diamond (when it’s a buoy), or the isolated circle 
that indicates a fixed aid. Lighted buoys are dis¬ 
tinguished by light-purple circles over-printed 
around the position circle. Lighted fixed aids 
have a light-purple exclamation mark with its 
sharp end pointing toward the position circle. 

In practical piloting, you should remember 
that buoys are anchored in place, and at low tide 
they may move off their charted position — may 
even wind up outside the channel they mark. 
They may also be sunk or displaced by ice, 
collision or vandalism. Fixed aids, on the other 
hand, stay put. Even if their lights are ex¬ 
tinguished, they are usually recognizable. 


12-7 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



12-11 The Relation of the North Magnetic 
Pole to the North Pole 


The Magnetic Compass 

Many centuries ago, mariners oriented 
themselves by the sun’s place. of rising and 
setting or by the direction of prevailing winds. 
This was less than precise (especially on wind¬ 
less, cloudy days), and the magnetic compass, 
slowly perfected over the ages, became the 
sailor’s most common and reliable direction- 
indicating instrument. 

In principle, the magnetic compass remains as 
simple as when it was invented by some un¬ 
known traveler in early medieval times. It is a 
linear magnet balanced so it can pivot freely in a 
horizontal plane and line up — as any magnet so 
suspended will — with the earth’s magnetic 
field. The linear magnet, properly suspended 
and unaffected by nearby ferrous metal or 
electrical influence, will point toward the North 
Magnetic Pole, an area on earth whose location 
changes slightly and very slowly, but which lies 
in far northern Canada, at some distance from 
the “true” North Pole — a fictional location that 
serves as a base point for the familiar grid of 
latitude and longitude lines*seen on all maps and 
charts. 



12-12 Parallels of Latitude Measure North 

and South from the Equator - 0° to 90° 
at Either Pole 


Latitude and Longitude 

Parallels of latitude are numbered north and 
south from 0° at the Equator to 90° North and 
90° South at the true North and South Poles 
respectively. Each degree is subdivided into 60 
equal segments called minutes, and each minute 
into either 60 seconds or 10 tenths of minutes, 
according to the notational system one prefers. 
On charts, true North is usually located at the 
top, and the parallels are indicated along the 
side margins by divisions in the black-and-white 
border, as well as by actual lines running across 
the chart surface at stated intervals that depend 
on the chart scale. It’s handy to remember that 
one minute of latitude (but not longitude) 
equals one nautical mile (6076.1 feet or 1852 
meters). Each chart also contains at least one 
printed scale, in nautical miles, kilometers, 
statute miles and/ or yards. (Small Craft Charts 
are sometimes printed to show a maximum 
stretch of shoreline per sheet, and when this is 
the case, the top edge of the chart may not be 
North.) 


12-8 




























SAILBOAT PILOTING 



12-13 Latitude is Measured along the Vertical Margins. Note that the Basic Chart is 
in Minutes and Tenths of Minutes. The Inset has both Latitude and 
Longitude Divided into Minutes and Seconds 


Nautical Miles 


3 

Yards 


1000 


10000 


PLANE COORDINATE GRID 
The Maryland State plane coordinate grid 
is indicated on this chart at 40.000 loot 
intervals thus - ♦- 
The last three digits are omitted 


12-14 Scales may be Printed in Nautical Miles, Kilometers, Statute Miles and/or Yards. 


12-9 

































































SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


i 

LD 




12-15 Meridians of Longitude Measure East 

or West from the Prime Meridian to 180° 

T f 

Meridians of longitude run north and south 
between the true poles. By an ancient conven¬ 
tion, meridians are numbered east and west 
from Greenwich, England. West and East 
Longitude meet at 180° in the Pacific Ocean, 
down most of which the International Date Line 
runs. The entire United States is thus in West 
Longitude — from about 60° West on the East 
Coast to about 130° West in California or 150° 
West in Hawaii. 



12-16 Latitude and Longitude Form a Grid System 


The grid system of latitude and longitude, so 
essential for celestial navigation, is also useful 
for pinpointing position without reference to 
navigational aids or landmarks. If, for instance, 
a boat’s position is given as 45° 30.1' North, 
73° 20.4' West, there is only one place it can be. 
This grid system of positioning is not too useful 
or meaningful to the small boat sailor, however, 
and a grid based on true North does make it 
difficult for the mariner whose compass points 
to magnetic North. For obvious reasons, charts 
can only accommodate one reference grid. The 
navigator with a magnetic compass is left with 
two choices — “correct” his compass reading to 
the true North equivalent of its magnetic 
direction, or use an angular measuring device or 
system that reads out in magnetic degrees. 

Traditional navigators make an arithmetic 
calculation to correct for variation — local 
difference East or West between the direction of 
true and magnetic North. For day-to-day course 
setting, it’s far easier and just as reliable to 
ignore true North altogether, using magnetic 
North as one’s reference point. 

On each chart are printed several compass 
roses, directional circles on which are marked 
the 360 degrees of the True North directional 
circle in an outer ring, with the 360° Magnetic 
circle in an inner ring, and a written notation of 


12-10 












































SAILBOAT PILOTING 



12-17 Usually Several Compass Roses are Placed Conveniently on the Chart. 
Some Charts May Only Require One 


the local amount of variation. Later in this 
chapter we’ll show how to plot and set courses 
by the inner, or magnetic, rose using either 
parallel rules or a course protractor; for the 
moment, merely bear in mind that any course — 
the direction from one point to another — can 
be expressed equally well in degrees true, related 
to True North, or degrees magnetic, based on 
the direction of magnetic north. 

Selecting a Compass 

When choosing a magnetic compass, you 
should first consider where on the boat it will be 
sited. Aboard cruising sailboats, the preferred 
location is usually the aft bulkhead of the deck¬ 
house, where it can easily be seen from the helm. 
Boats with wheel steering usually have a 
binnacle for the wheel mounting, and the 
compass is fixed there. But for small daysailers, 
compass location can be a real problem. Mount¬ 
ing it in a removable bracket on the center- 
board trunk is a common compromise, ade¬ 
quate unless your boat has a steel or iron center- 
board. 



12-18 The Magnetic Compass - the Sailor’s 
Most Common and Reliable Direction- 
Indicating Instrument 


Try to locate the instrument so you can sight 
over it in all directions, and be sure the fore-and- 
aft marks — the center pivot and the lubber’s 
line — are in line with the keel. Many good sail- 


12-11 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


i 



12-19 A Compass on a Hatch Slide. Note the 
Guard Above The Compass 

boat compasses have extra lubber’s lines at 45° 
on either side of the centerline, because sailboat 
helmsmen steer from one side of the cockpit or 
the other, but don’t sit directly in line with the 
compass. 

A good compass nearly always has internal 
compensators, small magnets that allow the 
instrument to be adjusted for local metal or elec¬ 
trical influence (known as deviation). If you 
plan to sail at night, and if your boat has an elec¬ 
trical system, it’s handy also to have a compass 
with a built-in red light. 

The compass should be located at least three 
feet from radios, other electronic instruments or 
masses of ferrous metal. This may be hard to 
achieve in a small boat. When you’ve done your 
best, sail out and anchor at a place in the harbor 
where you can see several charted landmarks or 
fixed aids to navigation. 

r t 

When the boat is riding steadily, face north 
according to the compass and orient yourself on 
the chart. Pick out as many natural and man¬ 
made features as you can and find their corre¬ 
sponding symbols on the chart. Do this from 
several points in your home waters and then try 
it underway. You’ll soon find that it’s not hard 
to relate reality to the chart, as long as you don’t 
commit the navigator’s cardinal sin — losing 
track of where you are. 


Plotting Compass Courses 

Now you’re ready to try plotting compass 
courses. You’ll need a course protractor or 
parallel rules, a pencil and a pair of dividers. 
There are so many kinds of course protractors 
that it’s impossible to give instructions for each 
type. For that reason, this book will show 
course plotting with parallel rules — after 
you’ve mastered their use, you may want to try 
something different. 

To set a course on the chart, first pick start 
and finish points. While learning, it’s a good 
idea to use buoys that are well within sight of 
each other. Draw a straight line between the two 
points and lay one edge of the parallel rules 
along it. 

Now “walk” the rules to the nearest compass 
rose. This involves moving one rule while firmly 
holding the other in place, being careful not to 
lose the direction of the original line. It takes 
practice, and you will have to do it over several 
times until you get the hang of it. You’ll also 
need a flat, smooth surface under your chart, the 
larger the better, but no smaller than about two 
by two feet. When one edge of the rule has been 
walked to the compass rose, move it slowly and 
carefully until it intersects the small + that marks 
the rose’s center. 



12-20 Labeling a Magnetic Course Line With 
Direction and Speed 

From the inner degree circle, read out the 
course where the rule’s edge intersects the circle, 
on the side in which you are heading. This is 
your magnetic course. Write it along the top 
edge of the penciled course line as three digits 
followed by the letter “M” (for magnetic): a 
course of 90° would thus be 090 M. 


12-12 








SAILBOAT PILOTING 


Checking the Compass 

Having plotted a buoy-to-buoy course, take 
your boat out and carefully put her on that 
course. It’s a good idea to plot several possible 
courses in directions that are at least 45° 
different one from the other, and sail a beam 
reach, broad reach or run to minimize leeway. 
Using the course noted above, your compass 
should read 90°, or East, the same thing. When 
you arrive at the mark for the other end of the 
charted course, reverse your heading and reach 
back, if possible. Your compass should now 
read 180° different from the first heading, or 
270°. (This 180° reverse is called the reciprocal). 

If your original compass course and its 
reciprocal are the same as what you’ve plotted 
on the chart, or within 2-3 degrees either way, 
your compass is adequately free from deviation, 
the error caused by magnetic influences within 
the boat. If, on the other hand, you have an 
error of 5° or more on any heading, first check 
the accuracy of your plotting, then try running 
the courses again. If the error persists, check for 
a mass of ferrous metal, an electronic device or 
wiring near the compass. Presuming you find no 
removable source of interference, you must 
either move the compass, compensate the in¬ 
strument according to the manufacturer’s 
instructions, or make a deviation table, a record 
that indicates the amount of compass error on 
various evenly-spaced headings. Both compen¬ 
sation and making a deviation table are beyond 
the scope of this book, but are seldom necessary 
on small sailing craft. 

Positioning 

Assuming, however, that your compass is 
reasonably accurate, you can now employ it for 
positioning your boat. To do this, pick out two 
identifiable landmarks or (preferably) naviga¬ 
tional aids that form a 90° angle more or less 
with your boat as the apex. Now locate the two 
markers on your chart. Remember buoys are 
floating and therefore cannot be used for 
absolutely precise positions. 

Head the boat directly at one mark and note 
the compass course. As soon as you’ve written it 
down, head for the other mark and make a note 
of the compass heading to it. 



12-21 Plotting Two Lines of Position or 
Two LOPs 


For the sake of argument, lefs assume your 
first direction (called a bearing) was 095 M and 
the second was 195 M. Calculate the reciprocals 
of each bearing: 095 + 180 = 275; and 195+ 180 = 
375, or 015 (when you pass 360°, of course, you 
have to begin over with 001). 

Next, plot these reciprocals — 275° and 015° 
— from the charted positions of the respective 
marks. Each of these plotted lines is called a 
Line of Position, and your boat must be 
somewhere along it. Where two lines of position 
cross is obviously where you are. 

To double-check your work, try three lines of 
position. In theory, they should intersect at one 
point, but they most probably won’t. Practice 
doing the same thing over and over until they 
do, or at least form a reasonably small triangle. 


Speed-Time-Distance 

In setting courses, it’s important to know how 
long it’ll take you to get from place to place. 
Unfortunately, it’s hard to figure such times 
with much precision in the average small 
sailboat, for several reasons. 

To begin with, a sailboat’s speed is constantly 
changing, and it’s hard for a beginner to arrive 
at an average estimate over an extended dis¬ 
tance. Second, even if your boat has a 
speedometer, these instruments are not terribly 


12-13 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



To obtain an answer cover the symbol 
of that answer. The formula for your 
answer remains uncovered. 

Example: 


boat moving through the water, the size of the 
quarter wave and the force of the apparent 
wind. 

Auxiliary inboard engines usually have tach¬ 
ometers, and a boat’s speed through the water at 
a given tachometer setting is often quite pre¬ 
dictable. Again, time yourself between buoys 
with a stopwatch and work out a speed-tach¬ 
ometer table. 

The basic formula for determining speed 
when distance and time are known is: 


SPEED — Cover the S. The answer is 60 
multiplied by Distance divided by Time. 


s = 


60 D 
T 


DISTANCE — Cover the D. The answer 
is Speed multiplied by Time divided by 
60. 


The result isinunits of speed(MPH orNMPH). 
From that formula, it follows that: 


TIME — Cover the T. The answer is 60 
multiplied by Distance divided by Speed. 

12-22 Time, Speed and Distance Formula 


SxT 

D = - 

60 


and 


60D 

T = - 

S 


accurate or reliable at the slow speeds typical of 
sailboats. Finally, your boat’s speed over the 
bottom — her real speed — will be invisibly 
affected by the current, the movement of the 
watqr in which you’re floating. 

If you’re attempting to pilot accurately, you 
just have to do the best you can. One helpful fact 
to bear in mind is that the average non-planing 
sailboat’s cruising speed is something like the 
equal in knots of the square root of her waterline 
length. This apparently formidable thought is 
really quite simple: If your boat is 16 feet at the 
waterline, she will probably be able to average 
about four knots over an extended period. 

If you have a stopwatch, try timing yourself 
between buoys on various points of sailing and 
at various wind strengths. Write down the two 
buoy numbers and the times, and plot your 
speed at home. In a surprisingly short time 
you’ll be able to estimate your boat’s speed with 
considerable accuracy, just from the feel of the 


Tides and Currents 

We’ve mentioned the forces called tide and 
current several times in this chapter, but now we 
must come to grips with them. If you sail in tidal 
waters, you should be aware of the amount of 
rise from low to high water — it’s marked on 
some charts — and the force and direction of the 
normal tidal current. 

This information is available from many 
sources. Tide tables in one form or another give 
the time of high and low tide at several selected 
points for a full year at a time. Probably your 
local newspaper lists the time of high or low 
water at a prominent location. Although the 
state of the tide can be surprisingly different at 
two points not far from each other, most of the 
time the tide in a given harbor or bay is at much 
the same point in its cycle at any given time. 

Bear in mind, too, that tide predictions are 
just that — with a strong wind or a serious 
change in barometric pressure, the time of high 


12-14 







SAILBOAT PILOTING 


DAY 

TIME 

HT. 


h • m • 

ft. 

1 

0249 

-1 .5 

W 

0911 

4.2 


1413 

1.3 


2030 

6.9 

2 

0337 

-1.7 

TH 

1003 

4.2 


1 502 

1.5 


2115 

6.7 

3 

0425 

-1 .6 

F 

1 057 

4.2 


1 553 

1.7 


2203 

6.4 


DAY 

TIME 

HT. 


h .m. 

ft. 

16 

0316 

-0.5 

TH 

0945 

3.7 


1421 

2.1 


2034 

5.8 

1 7 

0348 

-0.5 

F 

1017 

3.7 


1453 

2.2 


2106 

5.7 

18 

0421 

-0.5 

SA 

1056 

3.7 


1529 

2.3 


21 37 

5.5 



12-25 Can Buoy with Radar Reflector and 
Green Reflective Paint Band. Note 
Current Flowing Past the Buoy 


12-23 Typical Excerpt from the Tide Tables 



12-24 This Current Chart Shows Maximum 
Ebb Velocities in San Francisco Bay 
and at the Golden Gate 


or low tide, and the amount of tidal rise or fall, 
may be considerably different from the forecast. 

To figure tide, use a reference point near your 
boat’s location. If you have a time for predicted 
high or low, you can work out a rough-and- 
ready but generally reliable prediction of the 
state of the tide at a time between high and low 
using the rule of 12: Take the total amount of 
tidal fluctuation in feet and divide it into 
twelfths (say the charted high water is 6.0 feet 
and the low water datum of soundings is 0.0; 
each twelfth is 0.5, or half a foot). 


Then: Low water = 0 

1 hour after Low, add 1/12 

2 hours after Low, add 3/12 

3 hours after Low, add 6/12 

4 hours after Low, add 9/12 

5 hours after Low, add 11/12 

6 hours after Low, add 12/12 


0 feet (datum) 

Vi foot above datum 
1 Vi feet above datum 
3 feet above datum 
4'/2 feet above datum 
5 l A feet above datum 
High water. 


This simple system is based on a six-hour cycle 
from high to low or the other way, approximate¬ 
ly the standard interval in most areas. 

The forces and directions of tidal currents are 
listed in a government publication called Tidal 
Current Tables for each day of the year at 
selected reference stations. Currents are related 
to tides, but the two forces do not operate on the 
same schedule. The current of a rising tide is 


12-15 



























SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 



12-26 Nun Buoy with Radar Reflector and 
Red Reflective Paint Band 


called the flood, the current of falling tide is the 
ebb. Normally, the current turns in the other 
direction some time after the tide has ceased to 
rise or fall, but this is not always the case. With 


practice, you can learn to estimate the force of 
the existing current by looking at the shape of 
water piled up against fixed objects, and then 
make a freehand adjustment for its effect. You 
will need to have the Tidal Current Tables, pub¬ 
lished by National Ocean Survey, for your 
region. 

If you live and sail in one of the major tidal 
boating areas covered by a set of Tidal Current 
Charts, this NOS publication will make current 
prediction easy. Each set consists of 12 simpli¬ 
fied charts of a given area bound in booklet 
form. Instead of soundings and aids to naviga¬ 
tion, the current chart is marked for the direc¬ 
tion and force of current in various points in 
each of the 12 hours of a complete high-low- 
high cycle. All you need to know is approxi¬ 
mately where you are, the present time, and 
have Tidal Current Tables for the region. 
Follow the instructions given in the Tidal 
Current Chart. 



12-27 Navigation Station on a Racing-Cruiser Type Sailboat 


Summary 

As noted at the beginning of this chapter, the 
navigation of the average small sailboat is a 
seat-of-the-pants procedure. Having mastered 
the simple techniques discussed here, you 


should have no great trouble getting where you 
want to go, provided you do keep practicing 
what you’ve learned. For longer voyages, it pays 
to take more serious instruction in piloting 
technique. 


12-16 









Chapter 13 


Radiotelephone 


General 

This chapter is addressed to owners and oper¬ 
ators of vessels voluntarily equipped for radiotele¬ 
phone communication. For practical purposes, 
recreational boats are not required by Federal law to 
carry radiotelephone equipment. If you do decide to 
equip your boat, there are certain regulations of the 
Federal Communications Commission that you 
must observe. These regulations are reflected in the 
text of this chapter, and are set forth in Volume IV, 
Part 83, of the FCC Rules and Regulations avail¬ 
able from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 
20402. 

Boats carrying more than six passengers for 
hire, as well as many other commercial craft, 
are required to carry radio equipment. If you 
operate any type of commercial vessel, consult 
your nearest FCC office to determine the re¬ 
quirements which may apply to you and your 
boat. 

Communications Purposes 

With the distress, safety and calling frequencies — 
Channel 16(156.8 MHz) VHF-FM and the 2181 kHz 
MF-SSB — as the keystones, the marine radio¬ 
telephone system is designed to accomplish all the 
following communications functions: 

1. Provide monitored distress and safety frequen¬ 
cies. By designating the distress frequencies as 
calling frequencies, the radio regulations ensure 
that a maximum number of stations will be 
listening at any given time. The success of this ar¬ 
rangement depends on cooperation, both in 
maintaining a listening watch on 2182 kHz or 


Channel 16(156.8 MHz) and in keeping those fre¬ 
quencies clear of all unnecessary commun¬ 
ication. 

2. Allow for communication between your vessel 
and local and Federal agencies. 

3. Provide frequencies for the exchange of infor¬ 
mation pertaining to navigation, movement or 
management of vessels. 

4. Provide special frequencies for stations and 
vessels engaged in commerce. 

5. Provide noncommercial frequencies for the 
special needs of recreational boating people. 

6. Provide separate frequencies for vessels to com¬ 
municate with shore telephones. 



13-1 Radiotelephone Set 


13-1 













SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


How To Get Ship Station 
and Operator Licenses 

Ship Station Licenses 

All radio stations aboard vessels must be licensed 
by the Federal Communications Commission. Ship 
stations are licensed primarily for the safety of life 
and property; therefore, distress and safety com¬ 
munications must have absolute priority. The 
licensee is responsible at all times for the lawful and 
proper operation of his station. 


Application for a ship station license including 
radionavigation (radar) and EPIRB (see a later 
section for special information concerning EPIRBs) 
is made on FCC Form 506. This form may be 
obtained from any FCC Field Office. The com¬ 
pleted application is sent to the Federal Com¬ 
munications Commission, P.O. Box 1040. Gettys¬ 
burg, PA 17325. Application processing time is 
approximately 6 to 8 weeks. The regular term of a 
ship station license is 5 years. 

Temporary Station License 

The Commission realizes that some individuals 
may want to start operating their radiotelephones 
immediately and not wait the 6 to 8 week processing 
time. To meet this need, the applicant may obtain an 
interim ship station license. This may be done by the 
applicant filing a properly completed application 
(FCC Form 506) and posting 506A, the temporary 
station license. This license, valid for sixty days from 
the date Form 506 is mailed to Gettysburg, Penn¬ 
sylvania, permits the applicant to operate his ship 
radiotelephone station while awaiting receipt of the 
regular term license. The regular term license will be 
mailed to the licensee prior to the expiration of the 
temporary permit. 


Renewal of Ship Station License 

An application for renewal of a ship radiotele¬ 
phone station license is made on FCC Form 405-B. 
This form is ordinarily mailed to the station licensee 
60 days prior to the expiration date of his license. If 
the form has not been received 30 days prior to the 
expiration of current license, FCC Form 405-B may 


be obtained upon request from any FCC office. Ap¬ 
plication for renewal must be received by the Com¬ 
mission prior to the expiration date of the station 
license. 

Discontinuing Ship Station Operation 

If you permanently discontinue the operation of 
the ship radio station, as for example, if you sell your 
boat, you are required to promptly return the station 
license to the Secretary, Federal Communications 
Commission, Washington, D. C. 20554. In the event 
that the license is not available for this purpose, a 
letter or telegram must be sent to the Secretary 
stating the reason why the license is not available 
and requesting that the license be cancelled. Other¬ 
wise, any violations committed in the operation of 
the station may be your responsibility. 

Modification of Ship Station License 

An application for modification of the station 
license must be filed when any transmitting equip¬ 
ment is added that does not operate in a frequency 
band or bands authorized in the ship station license. 
This application should be filed on FCC Form 506. 

No application for modification is required for 
additions and/ or replacement of FCC type accepted 
radiotelephone transmitters that operate in the same 
frequency band(s) as specified in the station license. 

The licensee must promptly notify the Commis¬ 
sion when the name of the licensee is changed, when 
the mailing address of the licensee is changed, or in 
the event that the vessel’s name is changed. This 
notice, which may be in letter form, should be sent to 
the Federal Communications Commission, P. O. 
Box 1040, Gettysburg, PA 17325, or to the 
Secretary, Federal Communications Commission, 
Washington, D. C. 20554. A copy of the letter 
should be posted with the station license until a new 
license is issued. No formal application or fee is 
required in these cases. 

VHF Equipment 

All ship stations employing frequencies in the 2 
MHz band must also be equipped to operate in the 
156-162 MHz band. Licensees authorized by their 
existing licenses to operate in the 2 MHz band may 
install and operate VHF equipment under authority 
of their existing licenses. 


13-2 


RADIOTELEPHONE 


Operator Permit or License 

The radiotelephone transmitter in a ship station 
may be operated only by a person holding a permit 
or operator license. The authorized operator may 
permit others to speak over the microphone if he 
starts, supervises, and ends the operation, makes the 
necessary log entries, and gives the necessary ident¬ 
ification. The authorization usually held by radio 
operators aboard small vessels is the Restricted 
Radiotelephone Operator Permit. 

The Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit 
is the minimum authorization required for the 
operation of a ship station. Neither the Restricted 
Radiotelephone Operator Permit nor the Third 
Class Radiotelephone Operator Permit allow the 
operator to make any transmitter adjustment that 
may affect the proper operation of the.station. Any 
such adjustments must be made by only the holder of 
a First- or Second-Class Radiotelegraph or Radio¬ 
telephone License. The Restricted Radiotelephone 
Operator Permit or verification card of a higher 
class license must be posted or kept on the operator’s 
person. 

An application for a Restricted Radiotelephone 
Operator Permit is made on FCC Form 753. The 
completed form is sent to the Federal Communica¬ 
tions Commission, P. O. Box 1050, Gettysbrug, PA 
17325. No oral or written examination is required. 
Applicants must be at least 14 years of age. A tem¬ 
porary 60-day Restricted Radiotelephone Oper¬ 
ators Permit is issued on FCC Form 506A. The Re¬ 
stricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit is issued 
for the lifetime of the licensee. 


Special Provisions for Aliens 


FCC Regulations. A list of all equipment acceptable 
for licensing in the marine service is included in the 
Commission’s Radio Equipment List. Any FCC 
Field Office can advise you whether the radiotele¬ 
phone you propose to use is type accepted under 
Part 83, if you furnish them with the manufacturer’s 
name and the model or type number of the trans¬ 
mitter. 

Adjustments of Transmitting Equipment 

The station licensee is responsible for the proper 
technical operation of his equipment. All transmit¬ 
ter measurements, adjustments, or repairs that may 
affect the proper operation of the transmitter must 
be made by or under the immediate supervision and 
responsibility of a person holding a valid First- or 
Second-Class Radiotelegraph or Radiotelephone 
Operator License. A special license endorsement is 
required to service a ship radar set. 

Selecting a VHF Radiotelephone 

Before purchasing a VHF-FM radiotelephone, 
you should carefully consider your requirements 
and select a unit that will meet these needs. You 
should remember that VHF communications are 
essentially “line of sight.” The average ship-to-ship 


Line of Sight 27.1 Nautical Miles 


5.7 N.Mi 


-21.4 N.Mi 


Curvature of Earth 


Boat 
Antenna 
25 Ft 



Broadcast^ 
Antenna 350 FT 


13-2 Line of Sight Distances for Radio 


Except for foreign governments and representa¬ 
tives of foreign governments, aliens may be granted 
ship station licenses and Restricted Radiotelephone 
Operator Permits. The operator permit granted to 
an alien is valid only for operating the ship station 
licensed in his name. Special forms and provisions 
are applicable to aliens and, therefore, an alien 
should contact an FCC Field Office for information 
before applying for his license and permit. 

Radiotelephone Equipment 

FCC Type Acceptance 

All radiotelephone transmitters used in a ship 
station must be type accepted under Part 83 of the 


range is about 10 to 15 miles, while the normally 
expected ship-to-shore range is 20 to 30 miles. These 
figures vary depending upon transmitter power, 
antenna height, and terrain. 

The FCC limits the transmitter power for VHF- 
FM to 25 watts for vessels and also requires the 
capability to reduce transmitter power to not more 
than one watt for short range communication. No 
matter how powerful your transmitter is, if you can’t 
hear the other station — you can’t communicate. 
The receiver performance of your radiotelephone is 
therefore an important aspect of your communica¬ 
tion capability. 


13-3 
















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


1 wo of the most important receiver specifica¬ 
tions are sensitivity and adjacent channel rejection. 
These two factors are usually a good indication of 
how a particular receiver will perform. 

In a VHF-FM receiver, the sensitivity is usually 
given as the number of microvolts required to 
produce 20 decibels (dB) of quieting. The lower or 
smaller the number of microvolts for the same 
amount of quieting, the better the sensitivity of the 
receiver; for example, 0.5 microvolt is better than 2.0 
microvolts. (Note: Some manufacturers specify the 
sensitivity at other than 20 dB, so you should be sure 
you are comparing receivers based on the same 
criteria.) 

The adjacent channel rejection is one of several 
different specifications that indicate the receiver’s 
ability to reject unwanted signals and accept only the 
desired signal. It is usually given as a negative 
number of dB. The larger the absolute number of 
dB, the better the adjacent channel rejection of the 
receiver. For example, a receiver with an adjacent 
channel rejection of-70 dB would normally perform 
much better than one with an adjacent channel 
rejection of -50 dB. 

Although many manufacturers do not include 
these figures on their data sheets, they are a highly 
reliable indication of the performance of a receiver; 
and the prospective buyer would be well advised to 
contact the manufacturer to obtain this informa¬ 
tion. It is also strongly recommended that the buyer 
seek the advice of a competent communications 
technician before making a final choice on a 
particular radiotelephone. 

Installation of a VHF Radiotelephone 

The licensee of a ship station may install a pre¬ 
tested VHF marine radiotelephone transmitter in his 
ship station. No operator license is required to 
perform this kind of installation. This permission 
does NOT authorize the ship station licensee to add 
or substitute channels or to make any modifications 
to the transmitter, with the exception that where the 
FCC has type accepted a transmitter in which 
factory sealed pretested “plug-in” modules are used 
for the addition or substitution of channels in the 
transmitter, the licensee may add or substitute 
channels using these “plug-in” modules. Unless the 
individual is working with coaxial cable, he should 
have a technician attach the coaxial cable plug to the 
antenna cable. 


Required Frequencies and 
Equipment Channelization 

All ship radiotelephone stations in the 156 to 162 
MHz band must be equipped to operate on: 

1. Ch. 16 (156.8 MHz) International Distress, 

Safety and Calling 
frequency for VHF. 

2. Ch. 6 (156.3 MHz) Intership Safety Channel. 

3. At least one working frequency. 

The number of channels installed in your set will 
depend largely on how the set will be used, where the 
vessel will be operated, and what coast stations are 
operating in your area. While fewer than twelve 
channels may be satisfactory for some vessels, in¬ 
stallation of a radiotelephone with less than twelve 
channel capability is not recommended. 

The marine VHF band in the United States con¬ 
sists of 47 channels including two weather channels. 



13-3 Thunderstorm 

The following tables include a listing of the non¬ 
commercial frequencies available, an explanation of 
the use of the various channels and some suggestions 
on the selection of channels for recreational (non¬ 
commercial) vessels. 

The more channels you have in your set, the better 
your communication capability will be. Caution 
must be exercised, however, in selecting and using 
channels in accordance with their authorized pur¬ 
poses as set out in Table II. 

The following table can be used as an aid in 
selecting the proper channels to install in your VHF 
radio. The suggested number of channels to be 
selected from each group is given for recreational 
vessels equipped with radiotelephones having six 
and twelve channel capability. An explanation of the 
use of each channel is given in Table II. 


13-4 








RADIOTELEPHONE 


TABLE I 


Channel 

Numbers 

16 

6 


22 

65. 66. 12, 
73. 14. 74. 
20 

13 

68. 9 

69, 71, 78 


Suggested Channel 
Selection tor 

Type of Communication Recreational 

Vessels 

6 Ch. 12 Ch. 

DISTRESS. SAFETY & CALLING * » 

Intership & ship to coast 

INTERSHIP SAFETY * * 

Intership. NOT to be used for non¬ 
safety intership communications 

Communications with U. S. Coast I 1 

Guard ship, coast, or aircraft stations. 

PORT OPERATIONS I 

Intership & ship to coast 


NAVIGATIONAL I 

NON-COMMERCIAL I 2 

Intership & ship to coast 

NON-COMMERCIAL I 

Ship to coast 


70.72 NON-COMMERCIAL 2 

Intership 

24.84.25. PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE 2 2 

85. 26, 86, Ship to public coast 
27. 87. 28 

162.40 & NOAA WEATHER SERVICE ** ** 

162.55 MH? Ship receive only 


* These stations are required to be installed in every ship station equipped with a 
VHF radio. 

“The weather receive channels are half-channels (receive only) one or both of 
which are recommended to be installed in each ship station. Many manufac¬ 
turers include one or both of these channels in their sets in addition to the normal 
six or twelve channel capacity. 


TABLE II 

CHANNEL USAGE 

Channel Ship Ship 

Number Transmit Receive Intended Use 


6 


9 


12 


13 


156.300 156.300 INTERSHIP SAFETY. Required for all 

VHF-FM equipped vessels for intership safe¬ 
ty purposes and search and rescue (SAR) 
communications with ships and aircraft of 
the U. S. Coast Guard. Must not be used for 
non-safety communications. 

156.450 156.450 COMMERCIAL AND NON-COMMER¬ 

CIAL (INTERSHIP AND SHIP-TO- 
COAST). Some examples of use are com¬ 
munications with commercial marinas and 
public docks to obtain supplies to schedule 
repairs and contacting commercial vessels 
about matters of common concern. 


156.600 156.600 PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 

SHIP-TO-COAST). Available to all vessels. 
This is a traffic advisory channel for use by 
agencies directing the movement of vessels in 
or near ports, locks, or waterways. Messages 
are restricted to the operational handling, 
movement and safety to ships and, in emer¬ 
gency, to the safety of persons. It should be 
noted, however, in the Ports of New York 
and New Orleans channels 11, 12 and 14 are 
to be used exclusively for the Vessel Traffic 
System being developed by the United States 
Coast Guard. 


156.650 156.650 NAVIGATIONAL — (SHIP’S) BRIDGE 

TO (SHIP’S) BRIDGE. This channel is 
available to all vessels and is required on 
large passenger and commercial vessels (in¬ 
cluding many tugs). Use is limited to naviga¬ 
tional communications such as in meeting" 
and passing situations. Abbreviated short 


operating procedures and I watt maximum 
power (except in certain special instances) are 
used on this channel for both calling and 
working. For recreational vessels, this 
channel should be used for listening to deter¬ 
mine the intentions of large vessels. This is 
also the primary channel used at locks and 
bridges operated by the U. S. Army Corps of 
Engineers. 


14 

156.700 

156.700 

PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 12. 

15 

156.750 

156.750 

ENVIRONMENTAL (RECEIVE ONLY). 


A receive only channel used to broadcast en¬ 
vironmental information to ships such as 
weather, sea conditions, time signals for navi¬ 
gation. notices to mariners, etc. Most of this 
information is also broadcast on the weather 
(WX) channels. 

16 156 800 156.800 DISTRESS, SAFETY AND CALLING 

(INTERSHIP AND SHIP-TO-COAST). 
Required channel for all VHF-FM equipped 
vessels. Must be monitored at all times sta¬ 
tion is in operation (except when actually 
communicating on another channel). This 
channel is monitored also by the Coast 
Guard, public coast stations and many 
limited coast stations. Calls to other vessels 
are normally initiated on this channel. Then, 
except in an emergency, you must switch to a 
working channel. For additional informa¬ 
tion see the sections on operating proced¬ 
ures. 


17 156.850 156.850 STATE CONTROL. Available to all vessels 

to communicate with ships and coast sta¬ 
tions operated by state or local govern¬ 
ments. Messages are restricted to regulation 
and control, or rendering assistance. Use of 
low power (I watt) setting is required by in¬ 
ternational treaty. 

20 157.000 161.600 PORT OPERATIONS (SHIP-TO- 

COAST). 

Available to all vessels. This is a traffic 
advisory channel for use by agencies direc¬ 
ting the movement of vessels in or near ports, 
locks, or waterways. Messages are restricted 
to the operational handling, movement and 
safety of ships and, in emergency, to the 
safety of persons. 


21A 157.050 157.050 U. S. GOVERNMENT ONLY. 

22A 157.100 157.100 COAST GUARD LIAISON. Thischannel is 

used for communications with U. S. Coast 
Guard ship, coast and aircraft stations after 
first establishing communications on channel 
16. It is strongly recommended that every 
VHF radiotelephone include this channel. 


23A 157.150 157.150 U. S. GOVERNMENT ONLY 

24 157.200 161.800 PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 

TO-COAST). Available to all vessels to com¬ 
municate with public coast stations operated 
by telephone companies. Channels 26 and 28 
are the primary public correspondence 
channels and therefore become the first 
choice for the cruising vessel having limited 
channel capacity. 


25 

157.250 

161.850 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

(SHIP- 

26 

157.300 

161.900 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

(SHIP- 

27 

157.350 

161.950 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

(SH IP- 


13-5 






SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


28 

157.400 

162.000 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

65A 

156.275 

156.275 

PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 12. 

66A 

156.325 

156.325 

PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 12. 

68 

156.425 

156.425 

NON-COM MERCIAL (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). A working channel for 


non-commercial vessels. May be used for ob¬ 
taining supplies, scheduling repairs, berth¬ 
ing and accommodations, etc. from yacht 
clubs or marinas, and intership operational 
communications such as piloting or arrang¬ 
ing for rendezvous with other vessels. It 
should be noted that channel 68 (and channel 
70 for intership only) is the most popular 
non-commercial channel and therefore is the 
first choice for vessels having limited channel 
capacity. 


69 

156.475 

156.475 

NON-COM MERCIAL (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 68, 
except limited to ship to shore communica¬ 
tions. 

70 

156.525 

156.525 

NON-COMMERCIAL (INTERSHIP). 

Same as channel 68, except limited to inter¬ 
ship communications. 

71 

156.575 

156.575 

NON-COMMERC1AL0NTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 68, 
exctfpt limited to ship to shore communica¬ 
tions. 

72 

156.625 

156.625 

NON-COMMERCIAL (INTERSHIP). 

Same as channel 68 except limited to inter¬ 
ship communications. 

73 

156.675 

156.675 

PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 20. 

74 

156.725 

156.725 

PORT OPERATIONS (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 20. 

78A 

156.925 

156.925 

NON-COM MERCIAL (INTERSHIP AND 
SHIP-TO-COAST). Same as channel 68, 
except limited to ship to shore communica¬ 
tions. 

8IA 

157.075 

157.075 

U. S. GOVERNMENT ONLY. 

82A 

157.125 

157.125 

U. S. GOVERNMENT ONLY. 

83A 

157.175 

157.175 

U. S. GOVERNMENT ONLY. 

84 

157.225 

161.825 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

85 

157.275 

161.875 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

86 
f i 

157.325 

161.925 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

87 

157.375 

161.975 

PUBLIC CORRESPONDENCE (SHIP- 
TO-COAST). Same as channel 24. 

WXI 


162.550 

WEATHER (RECEIVE ONLY). To receive 
weather broadcasts of the Department of 
Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmos¬ 
pheric Administration (NOAA). 

WX2 

— 

162.400 

WEATHER (RECEIVE ONLY). Same as 


WX1. 


NOTE: The addition of the letter “A” to the channel number indicates that the ship 
receive channel used in the United States is different from the one used by vessels 
and coast stations of other countries. Vessels equipped for U. S. operations only, 
will experience difficulty communicating with foreign ships and coast stations on 
these channels. 


FREQUENCY IN: 



Medium and High Frequency 
Radiotelephone Equipment 

Previously, most marine radiotelephones oper¬ 
ated in the 2-3 MHz medium frequency (MF) band. 
This equipment, which is now obsolete, employed 
double sideband (DSB) full carrier type of 
amplitude modulation (AM). These DSB 


13-6 






























RADIOTELEPHONE 


radiotelephones have been superseded by single 
sideband (SSB) equipment. The FCC requires that 
all installations in the medium frequency (MF) band 
employ the SSB mode. 

Single sideband provides a number of advantages 
over DSB equipment. Most important, the occupied 
bandwidth is narrower. Therefore, more stations 
can be accommodated in the marine bands. The SSB 
mode is more efficient than DSB. This permits 
longer range communications with less battery con¬ 
sumption than for DSB radiotelephones. 

SSB medium and high frequency radiotele¬ 
phones are primarily for offshore and high-seas ser¬ 
vice. For that reason, information on SSB tech¬ 
nique is beyond the scope of this chapter. 
Emergency Position Radio Beacon 

The EPIRB is basically a small VHF transmitter 
available in three classes, A, B, and C. The A and B 
classes send out a distinctive signal on two frequen¬ 
cies. These are the aeronautical emergency frequen¬ 
cies of 121.5 MHz monitored by commercial and 
private aircraft and 243 MHz monitored by com¬ 
mercial and private aircraft and 243 MHz moni¬ 
tored by military aircraft. 

The Class A EPIRB is capable of floating free of a 
sinking vessel and activating automatically while the 
Class B EPIRB must be activated manually. 

The Class C EPIRB has been authorized by the 
FCC specifically for vessels within range of a VHF 
installation (Inland waters and within 20 miles of 
shore). It operates alternately on VHF marine chan¬ 
nels 16 and 15, transmitting a short, distinctive 
warbling signal on Channel 16 to alert the monitor¬ 
ing station to the distress call and shifts automat¬ 
ically to Channel 15 with a longer transmission time 
to allow rescuers to home in on the signal with di¬ 
rection finding equipment. 

All three must be FCC licensed. 

In making application for FCC license, use FCC 
Form 506, whether the EPIRB is to be a part of the 
complement of transmitting equipment aboard or 
even if an EPIRB only is to be authorized. 

27 MHz Citizens Radio Band (CB) 

Operations in the Citizens Radio Service is 
intended primarily to provide an individual means 
of conducting personal or business communica¬ 
tions over a typical range of 5 to 15 miles. You may 
operate CB equipment aboard your boat on any of 
the 40 channels that have been made available in the 


27 MHz Class D service on a shared basis. 

FCC regulations limit the maximum power out¬ 
put from the transmitter to 4 watts carrier power 
(PEP) for amplitude modulation (AM) equipment, 
and 12 watts PEP for single sideband (SSB) 
transmitters, with a maximum antenna height of 20 
feet above the highest point of the vessel. 

Channel 9 in the Citizens Band has been desig¬ 
nated as an emergency channel for emergency com¬ 
munications involving the safety of life of individ¬ 
uals, protection of private property, or for rendering 
assistance to a motorist. 

No operator permit or operator license is re¬ 
quired; however, a station license is required prior to 
operation of a CB radio. The application should be 
filed with the FCC using Form 505. Mail the 
application to the Federal Communications Com¬ 
mission, P.O. Box 1010, Gettysburg, PA 17325. 

A Temporary Permit is Available Using Form 555-B 

Commencing 1 April 1978, the Coast Guard will 
monitor Channel 9, Citizens Band Radio Service 
(CB), not to interfere with existing communications 
system (i.e. Channel 16 VHF-FM or 2182.). The 
Coast Guard recommends that the boaters use 
VHF-FM for distress communications. 

Operating Procedures (Other than Distress, 
Urgency and Safety) 

Maintain a Watch 

Whenever your radio is turned on, keep the 
receiver tuned to the appropriate distress and calling 
frequency, 156.8 MHz or 2182 kHz. This listening 
watch must be maintained at all times the station is 
in operation and you are not actually communi¬ 
cating. 

Since this watch is required for safety and to facil¬ 
itate communications by providing a common 
calling channel, it is not permissible for one vessel in 
a fleet of vessels traveling together to maintain this 
watch while the other vessels guard another channel, 
such as common intership channel. You may main¬ 
tain a watch on a working channel, however, and 
may establish communications directly on that 
channel provided you simultaneously maintain your 
watch on the distress and calling channel. 

Don’t forget to record the times you maintain this 
watch in your Radio Log. 

Choose the Correct Channel or Frequency 

Each of the marine frequencies and channels is 
authorized for a specific type of communication. It is 


13-7 








SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


therefore required that you choose the correct 
channel for the type of communications you wish to 
engage in. For example, certain channels are set 
aside exclusively for intership use and may not be 
used for ship to coast communications. Channels are 
further classified according to the subject matter or 
content of the communications. For example. Com¬ 
mercial communications are limited to commercial 
operations and may be used only to discuss matters 
pertaining to the commercial enterprise the vessel is 
engaged in. 

The authorized use of each of the VHF channels is 
given in Table II. For recreational boats, most of the 
communications will be limited to what is known as 
Non-commercial (Operational in the MF band) 
communications and Public Correspondence. 

Public Correspondence 

By using the channels set aside for Public Corres¬ 
pondence and establishing communications through 
the facilities of the public coast stations, you are able 
to make and receive calls from any telephone on 
shore. There is no restriction on the content of your 
communication and you do not have to limit your 
messages strictly to ship’s business. Except for dis¬ 


tress calls, public coast stations will charge for this 
service. 

Non-Commercial or Operational 

These channels have been set aside to fulfill the 
wide scope of needs of the recreational (non¬ 
commercial) vessel. Frequencies are available for 
both intership and ship to shore (with limited coast 
stations) communications. Permissible commun¬ 
ications on these channels are those concerning the 
movement of vessels, obtaining supplies and service 
and, in general, anything else that pertains to the 
needs and normal operation of the vessel. “Chit¬ 
chat” is not permitted. 

Coast Guard 

The government frequencies 157.1 MHz (Channel 
22) and 2670 kHz are widely used by recreational 
boating operators for communicating with U. S. 
Coast Guard shore stations and ship stations, and 
with USCG Auxiliary vessels when these vessels are 
operating under orders. When using these channels, 
you must first establish communications on the ap¬ 
propriate calling frequency (Channel 16 or 2182 
kHz). 






yj - 

V 1 % 

v _ 

• 8 


13-5 Coast Guard Communication Station 


13-8 























































RADIOTELEPHONE 


Calling Intership 

Turn your radiotelephone on and listen on the ap¬ 
propriate distress and calling frequency, Channel 16 
or 2182 kHz, to make sure it is not being used. If it is 
clear, put your transmitter on the air. This is usually 
done by depressing the “push to talk” button on the 
microphone. (To hear a reply, you must release this 
button.) 

Speak directly into the microphone in a normal 
tone of voice. Speak clearly and distinctly. Call the 
vessel with which you wish to communicate by using 
its name; then identify your vessel with its name and 
FCC assigned call sign. Do nqt add unnecessary 
words and phrases such as “come in, Bob” or “Do 
you read me?” Limit the use of phonetics to poor 
transmission conditions. 

This preliminary call must not exceed 30 seconds. 
If contact is not made, wait at least 2 minutes before 
repeating the call. After this time interval, make the 
call in the same manner. This procedure may be 
repeated no more than three times. If contact is not 
made during this period, you must wait at least 15 
minutes before making your next attempt. 

Once contact is established on Channel 16 or 2182 
kHz, you must switch to an appropriate frequency 
for further communication. You may only use 
Channel 16 and 2182 kHz for calling and in emer¬ 
gency situations. 

Since switching to a “working” frequency is re¬ 
quired to carry out the actual communications, it is 
often helpful to monitor the “working” frequency 
you wish to use, briefly, before initiating the call on 
Channel 16 or 2182 kHz. This will help prevent you 
from interrupting other users of the channel. 

All communications should be kept as brief as 
possible and at the end of the communication each 
vessel is required to give its call sign, after which, 
both vessels switch back to the distress and calling 
channel in order to reestablish the watch. 

Two examples of acceptable forms for establish¬ 
ing communication with another vessel follow: 


EXAMPLE I 

Voice Transmission 

"MARY JANE — THIS IS - BLUE DUCK - 
WHISKEY ALFA 1234” 

(The name of the vessel being called may be said two 
or three times if conditions demand). 

"BLUE DUCK — THIS IS - MARY JANE 
WHISKEY ALFA 5678 - REPLY 68" 

(Or some other proper working channel.) 


"68 or "ROGER” 

(If unable to reply on the channel selected, an ap¬ 
propriate alternate should be selected.) 

BLUE DUCK (on working channel) "BLUE DUCK” 

MARY JANE (on working channel) "MARY JANE" 

BLUE DUCK (on working channel) (Continues with message and terminates commun¬ 
ication within 3 minutes. At the end of the commun¬ 
ication. each vessel gives its call sign.) 

EXAMPLE II - A short form most useful when both parties are familiar with it. 

BLUE DUCK (on Channel 16) "MARY JANE BLUE DUCK WHISKEY 

ALFA 1234 REPLY 68" 

MARY JANE (on Channel 68) "MARY JANE WHISKEY ALFA 5678” 

BLUE DUCK (on Channel 68) "BLUE DUCK" 

(Continues message and terminates communica¬ 
tions as indicated in EXAMPLE I.) 


Calling Ship to Coast (Other than U. S. Coast 
Guard) 

The procedures for calling coast stations are 
similar to those used in making intership calls with 
the exception that you normally initiate the call on 
the assigned frequency of the coast station. 

Routine Radio Check 

Radio checks may be made on 156.8 MHz 
(Channel 16) but should be completed by immed¬ 
iately shifting to a working channel. 

Listen to make sure that the Distress and Calling 
frequency is not busy. If it is free, put your transmit¬ 
ter on the air and call a specific station or vessel and 
include the phrase “request a radio check” in your 
initial call. For example, “MARY JANE - THIS IS 
BLUE DUCK - WHISKEY ALFA 1234 - RE¬ 
QUEST RADIO CHECK CHANNEL_ 

(names working channel) - OVER.” After the reply 
by Mary Jane, Blue Duck would then say “HOW 
DO YOU HEAR ME? - OVER.” The proper re¬ 
sponse by Mary Jane, depending on the respective 
conditions, would be: 

“I HEAR YOU LOUD AND CLEAR,” or 

“I HEAR YOU WEAK BUT CLEAR,” or 

“YOU ARE LOUD BUT DISTORTED,” etc. 


Vessel 

BLUE DUCK (on Channel 16) 

MARY JANE (on Channel 16) 

BLUE DUCK (on Channel 16) 


13-9 









SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Do not respond to a request for a radio check with 
such phrases as: 

“I HEAR YOU FIVE BY FIVE,” or 

“I READ YOU LOUD AND CLEAR.” 

Figures are not a clear response as to the character of 
the transmission and the word “read” implies a radio 
check by a meter. 

It is illegal to call a Coast Guard Station on 2182 
kHz for a radio check. This prohibition does not 
apply to tests conducted during investigations by 
FCC representatives or when qualified radio tech¬ 
nicians are installing equipment or correcting defi¬ 
ciencies in the station radiotelephone equipment. 


Radiotelephone Station Log 

A radio log is required; each page must (1) be 
numbered; (2) bear the name of the vessel and call 
sign; and (3) be signed by the operator. Entries must 
show the time each watch begins and ends. All dis¬ 
tress and alarm signals must be recorded as com¬ 
pletely as possible. This requirement applies to all 
related communications transmitted or intercepted, 
and to all urgency and safety signals and commun¬ 
ications transmitted. A record of all installations, 
services, or maintenance work performed that may 
affect the proper operation of the station must also 
be entered by the licensed operator doing the work, 
including his address and the class, serial number, 
and expiration date of his license. 

The 24-hour system is used in a radio log for 
recording time; that is, 8:45 a.m. is written as 0845 
and 1:00 p.m. as 1300. Local time is normally used, 
but Eastern Standard Time (EST) or Universal 
Coordinated Time (UTC) - must be used through¬ 
out the Great Lakes. Vessels on international voy¬ 
ages use UTC exclusively. Whichever time is used, 
the appropriate abbreviation for the time zone must 
be entered at the head of the time column. 

Radio logs must be retained for at least a year, and 
for 3 years if they contain entries concerning dis¬ 
tress, and for longer periods if they concern com¬ 
munications being investigated by the FCC or 
against which claims or complaints have been filed. 

Station logs must be made available for inspec¬ 
tion at the request of an FCC representative, who 
may remove them from the licensee’s possession. On 
request, the licensee shall mail them to the FCC by 


either registered or certified mail, return receipt 
requested. 

A sample ‘‘Ship Radio Station Log Sheet” and a 
‘‘Ship Radio Station Maintenance Log Sheet” are 
shown. 


SAMPLE 

SHIP RADIO STATION LOG SHEET 

(Recreational Vessels) 



DATE 

/I 

DISTRESS LISTENING 
WATCH TIME/2 /3 

Channel 

or 

Freq. /4 

Priority 

MESSAGE 

TIME 

/2 

MESSAGE 

/5 

OPERATOR S 
SIGNATURE 

(EST, GMT, ETC.) 

Start Stop 


















































1 Log: Day. Month, Year 

2 Use UTC or Local Time Show which used. Use 24-hour system; that is. 8:45 a.m. is entered as 0845. and 2:15 
p.m. as 1415. 

3 Log time when radiotelephone is turned on and when turned off. 

4 Log VHF Channel 16 (156.800 MHz) or 2182 kHz. as appropriate. 

5 Record as completely as possible all distress communications transmitted or intercepted and all urgency and 
safety communications transmitted Retain logs for at least one year: for 3 yeais if they include entries related to 
distress: longer if they concern communications being investigated by the FCC or against which claims or com¬ 
plaints have been filed. 


SAMPLE 

SHIP RADIO STATION MAINTENANCE LOG 

(Recreational Vessels) 


Page No _Name of Vessel_Radio Call 


DATE 

SERVICE RECORD 

TECHNICIAN S LICENSE DATA 
















































Include record of installations, repairs, adjustments and service performed by FCC licensed Radiotelegraph or 
Radiotelephone 1st or 2nd Class Radio Operator.Special endorsement required for Radar installation and repair. 


Secrecy of Communications 

The Communications Act prohibits divulging 
interstate or foreign communications transmitted, 
received, or intercepted by wire or radio to anyone 
other than the addressee or his agent or attorney, or 
to persons necessarily involved in the handling of the 
communications, unless the sender authorizes the 


13-10 



























































RADIOTELEPHONE 


divulgence of the contents of the communication. 
Persons intercepting such communications or 
becoming acquainted with them are also prohibited 
from divulging the contents or using the contents for 
the benefit of themselves or others. 

Obviously, this requirement of secrecy does not 
apply to radio communications relating to ships in 
distress, nor to radio communications transmitted 
by amateurs or broadcasts by others for use of the 
general public. It does apply, however, to all other 
communications. These statutory secrecy provis¬ 
ions cover messages addressed to a specific ship 
station or coast station or to a person via such 
station. 

Obscenity, Indecency and Profanity 

When two or more ship stations are communicat¬ 
ing with each other, they are talking over an exten¬ 
sive party line. Users should always bear this fact in 
mind and assume that many persons are listening. 
All users therefore have a compelling moral obliga¬ 
tion to avoid offensive remarks. They also have a 
strict legal obligation inasmuch as it is a criminal 
offense for any person to transmit communications 
containing obscene, indecent, or profane words, lan¬ 
guage, or meaning. Whoever utters any obscene, 
indecent or profane language by means of radio 
communication may be fined not more than $ 10,000 
or imprisoned not more than 2 years, or both. 

Procedure Words 

One way of cutting down the length of radio trans¬ 
missions without loss of meaning is by the use of 
Procedure Words. These are individual words and 
short phrases which express complex thoughts in ab¬ 
breviated form. They are employed in transmitting 
situations which frequently recur — the most 
obvious example, perhaps, is the word “OUT,” 
which (when spoken at the end of a message) 
signifies: “THIS IS THE END OF MY TRANS¬ 
MISSION TO YOU AND NO ANSWER IS RE¬ 
QUIRED OR EXPECTED.” 

Procedure words can only be successful in short¬ 
ening message sending when (1) their meaning is 
fully understood by sender and listener and (2) they 
are properly used. The phrase over and out, for 
instance, is improper, since the two terms are con¬ 
tradictory. 


Following is a list of procedure words and their 
meanings. It will take time for the novice operator to 
become used to this form of verbal shorthand, but 
effort spent in learning these few phrases will be re¬ 
paid in clearer, shorter messages. 

PROCEDURE WORD MEANING 


OUT 

This is the end of my transmission 
to you and no answer is required or 
expected. 

OVER 

This is the end of my transmission 
to you and a response is necessary. 
Go ahead and transmit. 


(Note: Observe the considerable 
difference between “Over,” used 
during a message exchange, and 
“Out,” employed at the end of an 
exchange. “Over” should be omit¬ 
ted when the context of a trans¬ 
mission makes it clear that it is un¬ 
necessary.) 

ROGER 

I have received your last transmis¬ 
sion satisfactorily. 

WILCO 

Your last message has been re¬ 
ceived, understood, and will be 
complied with. 

THIS IS 

This transmission is from the sta¬ 
tion whose name, or call sign im¬ 
mediately follows. 


(Note: Normally used at the begin¬ 
ning of a transmission: “BLUE 
DUCK—THIS IS —GIMLET — 
WHISKEY ZULU ECHO 3488.” 
Sometimes omitted in transmis¬ 
sions between experienced oper¬ 
ators familiar w'ith each other’s 
boat names.) 

FIGURES 

Figures or numbers follow. 


(Used when numbers occur in the 
middle of a message: “Vessel length 
is figures two three feet.”) 

SPEAK SLOWER 

Your transmission is at too fast a 
speed, speak more slowly. 

SAY AGAIN 

Repeat. 

WORDS TWICE 

Communication is difficult — give 
every phrase twice. 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


I SPELL 

MESSAGE FOLLOWS 

BREAK 

WAIT 


AFFIRMATIVE 

NEGATIVE 

SILENCE (said 
three times) 

SILENCE FINT 


I shall spell the next word phonet¬ 
ically. 

(Note: Often used where a proper 
name or unusual word is impor¬ 
tant to a message; “Boat name is 
Martha. I spell — Mike; Alfa; 
Romeo; Tango; Hotel; Alfa.” See 
phonetic alphabet.) 

A message that requires recording 
is about to follow. 

1 separate the text from other por¬ 
tions of the message; or one mes¬ 
sage from one immediately fol¬ 
lowing. 

I must pause for a few seconds; 
stand by for further transmission. 

(Note; This is normally used when 
a message must be interrupted by 
the sender. If. for instance, one sta¬ 
tion is asked for information not 
instantly available, its operator 
might send “WAIT” while looking 
up the required data. In addition. 
WAIT may also be used to sus¬ 
pend the transmission of an on-the- 
air test. If a station announces its 
intention of making such a test, 
another station using the channel 
may transmit the word “WAIT;” 
the test shall then be suspended. 

You are correct, or what you have 
transmitted is correct. 


No. 


Cease all transmissions immed¬ 
iately. Silence will be maintained 
until lifted. 

(Note: Used to clear routine busi¬ 
ness from a channel when an emer¬ 
gency is in progress. In this mean¬ 
ing Silence is correctly pronoun¬ 
ced SEE LONSS.) 

Silence is lifted. 

(Note: Signifies the end of the 
emergency and the resumption of 
normal traffic. Correctly pro¬ 
nounced SEE LONSS FEE NEE.) 


PHONETIC ALPHABET 


Phonetic 


Letter 

Equivalent 

Pronunciation 

A 

ALFA 

AL FAH 

B 

BRAVO 

BRAH VOH 

C 

CHARLIE 

CHAR LEE 

D 

DELTA 

DELL TAH 

E 

ECHO 

ECK OH 

F 

FOXTROT 

FOKS TROT 

G 

GOLF 

GOLF 

H 

HOTEL 

HO TELL 

I 

INDIA 

IN DEE AH 

J 

JULIETT 

JEW LEE ETT 

K 

KILO 

KEY LOH 

L 

LIMA 

LEE MAH 

M 

MIKE 

MIKE 

N 

NOVEMBER 

NO VEM BER 

0 

OSCAR 

OSS CAH 

P 

PAPA 

PAH PAH 

Q 

QUEBEC 

KEH BECK 

R 

ROMEO 

ROW ME OH 

S 

SIERRA 

SEE AIR RAH 

T 

TANGO 

TANG GO 

U 

UNIFORM 

YOU NEE FORM 

V 

VICTOR 

VIK TAH 

w 

WHISKEY 

WISS KEY 

X 

XRAY 

ECKS RAY 

Y 

YANKEE 

YANG KEY 

Z 

ZULU 

ZOO LOO 

0 

ZERO 

ZERO 

1 

ONE 

WUN 

2 

TWO 

TOO 

3 

THREE 

THUH REE 

4 

FOUR 

FO WER 

5 

FIVE 

FI YIV 

6 

SIX 

SIX 

7 

SEVEN 

SEVEN 

8 

EIGHT 

ATE 

9 

NINE 

NINER 


13-12 


RADIOTELEPHONE 


Operating Procedures (Distress, Urgency and 
Safety) 

General 

If you are in distress, you may use any means at 
your disposal to attract attention and obtain 
assistance. You are by no means limited to the use of 
your marine radiotelephone. Often, visual signals, 
including flags, flares, lights, smoke, etc., or audible 
signals such as your boat’s horn or siren, or a whistle, 
or megaphone will get the attention and help you 
need. 

For boats equipped with a marine radiotele¬ 
phone, help is just a radio signal away. Two marine 
radiotelephone channels have been set aside for use 
in emergencies. Channel 16 (156.8 MHz), the VHF- 
FM Distress, Safety and Calling frequency is the 
primary emergency channel in the VHF marine 
band. For those who have medium frequency (MF) 
radiotelephone also, 2182 kHz is the emergency 
frequency for use in that band. You are not limited 
to the use of these channels; you may use any other 
frequency channel available to you. The working 
frequency of the local marine operator (public tele¬ 
phone coast station) is a good example of a channel 
that is monitored. 

There are other types of marine stations located 
ashore that are listening to Channel 16 and 2182 kHz 
along with the marine radio equipped vessels oper¬ 
ating in the area. Because of this coverage, almost 
any kind of a call for assistance on Channel 16 (or 
2182 kHz) will probably get a response. There are 
times, however, when the situation demands im¬ 
mediate attention; when you just can’t tolerate 
delay. These are the times when you need to know 
how to use (or respond to) the Distress and Urgency 
signals and how to respond to the Safety signal. 

Spoken Emergency Signals 

There are three spoken emergency signals: 

1. Distress Signal: MAYDAY 

The distress signal MAYDAY is used to indi¬ 
cate that a mobile station is threatened by 
grave and imminent danger and requests im¬ 
mediate assistance. MAYDAY has priority 
over all other communications. 

2. Urgency Signal: PAN (Properly 
pronounced PAHN) 


Used when the safety of the vessel or person is 
in jeopardy. “Man overboard” messages are 
sent with the U rgency signal. PAN has priority 
over all other communications with the excep¬ 
tion of distress traffic. 

3. Safety Signal: SECURITY (Pronounced 
SA Y-CURITA Y) 

Used for messages concerning the safety of 
navigation or giving important meteorologi¬ 
cal warnings. 

Any message headed by one of the emergency 
signals (MAYDAY, PAN, or SECURITY), must be 
given precedence over routine communications. 
This means listen. Don’t transmit. Be prepared to 
help if you can. The decision of which of these emer¬ 
gency signals to use is the responsibility of the person 
in charge of the vessel. 

Radiotelephone Alarm Signal 

This signal consists of two audio frequency tones 
transmitted alternately. This signal is similar in 
sound to a two-tone siren used by some ambul¬ 
ances. When generated by automatic means, it shall 
be sent as continuously as practicable over a period 
of not less than 30 seconds nor more than 1 minute. 
The purpose of the signal is to attract attention of the 
person on watch or to actuate automatic devices 
giving the alarm. The radiotelephone alarm signal 
shall be used only with the distress signal except in 
two situations dealing with the Urgency Signal. 


Sending Distress Call and Message 

First send the Radiotelephone Alarm Signal, if 
available. 

1. Distress signal MAYDAY (spoken three times) 

2. The words THIS IS (spoken once) 

3. Name of vessel in distress (spoken three times) 
and call sign (spoken once) 

The Distress Message immediately follows the 
Distress Call and consists of: 

4. Distress signal MAYDAY (spoken once) 

5. Name of vessel (spoken once) 


13-13 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


6. Position of vessel in distress by latitude and 
longitude or by bearing (true or magnetic, state 
which) and distance to a well-known landmark 
such as a navigational aid or small island, or in 
any terms which will assist a responding station 
in locating the vessel in distress 

7. Nature of distress (sinking, fire, etc.) 

8. Kind of assistance desired 

9. Any other information which might facilitate 
rescue, such as: 

length or tonnage of vessel 

number of persons on board and number 

needing medical attention 

color of hull, decks, cabin, masts, etc. 

10. The word OVER 

EXAMPLE: Distress Call and Message 

(Send Radiotelephone Alarm Signal, if available, 
for at least 30 seconds but not more than 1 minute.) 

“MAYDAY - MAYDAY - MAYDAY 
THIS IS — BLUE DUCK — BLUE DUCK — 
BLUE DUCK — WHISKEY ALFA 1234 
MAYDAY — BLUE DUCK 
DUNGENESS LIGHT BEARS 185 
DEGREES MAGNETIC — DISTANCE 2 
MILES 

STRUCK SUBMERGED OBJECT 
NEED PUMPS — MEDICAL ASSISTANCE 
AND TOW 

THREE ADULTS — TWO CHILDREN 
ABOARD 

ONE PERSON COMPOUND FRACTURE 
OF ARM 

ESTIMATE CAN REMAIN AFLOAT TWO 
HOURS 

BLUE DUCK IS THIRTY-TWO FOOT 
CABIN CRUISER — BLUE HULL 
' WHITE DECK HOUSE 
OVER” 

NOTE: Repeat at intervals until answer is received. 
If no answer is received on the Distress fre¬ 
quency, repeat using any other available 
channel on which attention might be at¬ 
tracted. 

Acknowledgement of Distress Message 

If you hear a Distress Message from a vessel and it 
is not answered, then YOU must answer. If you are 


reasonably sure that the distressed vessel is not in 
your vicinity, you should wait a short time for others 
to acknowledge. In any event, you must log all per¬ 
tinent details of the Distress Call and Message. 

Offer of Assistance 

After you acknowledge receipt of the distress 
message, allow a short interval of time for other sta¬ 
tions to acknowledge receipt, if there are any in a po¬ 
sition to assist. When you are sure of not interfering 
with other distress-related communications, con¬ 
tact the vessel in distress and advise them what as¬ 
sistance you can render. Make every effort to notify 
the Coast Guard. The offer-of assistance message 
shall be sent only with permission of the person in 
charge of your vessel. 

Urgency Call and Message Procedures 

The emergency signal PAN (pronounced PAHN), 
spoken three times, begins the Urgency Call. The 
Urgency Call and Message is transmitted on 
Channel 16 (or on 2182 kHz) in the same way as the 
Distress Call and Distress Message. The Urgency 
signal PAN indicates that the calling person has a 
message concerning the safety of the vessel, or a 
person in jeopardy. The Urgency signal is author¬ 
ized for situations like the following: 

—Transmission of an urgent storm warning by an 
authorized shore station. 

-Loss of person overboard but only when the as¬ 
sistance of other vessels is required. 

-No steering or power in shipping lane. 

Sending Urgency Call and Message 

The Urgency Call and Message usually includes 
the following: 

L The Urgency signal PAN (spoken three times) 

2. Addressee ALL STATIONS (or a particular 
station) 

3. The words THIS IS 

4. Name of calling vessel (spoken three times) and 
call sign (spoken once) 

5. The Urgency Message (state the urgent problem) 

6. Position of vessel and any other information that 
will assist responding vessels. Include descrip¬ 
tion of your vessel, etc. 

7. The words THIS IS 


13-14 


RADIOTELEPHONE 


MARINE DISTRESS COMMUNICATIONS FORM 

Instructions: Complete this form now (except for items 6 through 9) and post near your radiotelephone for use if you are 

in DISTRESS. 

********* 


SPEAK: SLOWLY - CLEARLY - CALMLY 

1. Make sure your radiotelephone is on. 

2. Select either VHF Channel 16 (156.8 MHz) or 2182 kHz. 

3. Press microphone button and say: "MAYDAY-MAYDAY-MAYDAY.” 

4. Say: "THIS IS-.- 

Your Call Sign/Boat Name repeated three times 

5. Say: "MAYDAY_ .” 

Your Boat Name 

6. TELL WHERE YOU ARE (What navigational aids or landmarks are near?). 

7. STATE THE NATURE OF YOUR DISTRESS. 

8. GIVE NUMBER OF PERSONS ABOARD AND CONDITIONS OF ANY INJURED. 

9. ESTIMATE PRESENT SEAWORTHINESS OF YOUR BOAT. 

10. BRIEFLY DESCRIBE YOUR BOAT:____FEET; _„_; ___ HULL; 

Length Type Color 

_ TRIM;_MASTS.___ 

Color Number * * Anything else you think will help rescuers find you. 

11. Say: "I WILL BE LISTENING ON CHANNEL 16/2182.’’ 

Cross out one which does not apply 

12. End Message by saying: "THIS IS o . OVER" 

Your Boat Name and Call Sign 

13. Release microphone button and listen: Someone should answer. 

IF THEY DO NOT, REPEAT CALL, BEGINNING AT ITEM NO. 3 ABOVE. 

If there is still no answer, switch to another channel and begin again. 


Radiotelephone Reminders 


• Post station license and have operator license available. 

• Whenever the radio is turned on, keep the receiver tuned to the distress frequency (2182 kHz or 156.8 
MHz). 

• Use 2182 kHz and 156.8 MHz for calling, distress, urgency or safety only. 

• Listen before transmitting on any frequency to avoid interfering with other communications. 

• If you hear a MAYDAY, talk only if you can help. Be prepared to render assistance or relay the distress 
message if necessary. 

• Identify by call sign at the beginning and end of each communication. 

• Keep all communications as brief as possible. 

• Keep your radio equipment shipshape. Have it checked periodically by a qualified, licensed technician. 

• Notify FCC of changes to mailing address, licensees name and vessel name. 

• False distress signals are prohibited. 

• Radiocommunications are private and divulgence of content without permission is prohibited. 


• Don’t use profane or indecent language. 


13-15 



















SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


VESSEL INFORMATION DATA SHEET 

When requesting assistance from the Coast Guard, you 
may be asked to furnish the following details. This list 
should, therefore, be filled out as completely as possible 
and posted alongside your transmitter with the Distress 
Communications Form. 


1. Description of Vessel Requiring Assistance. 

Hull markings _ 

Home port _ 

Draft _ 

Sails: Color _ 

Markings - 

Bowsprit ?_ 

Outriggers ? _ 

Flying Bridge ?_ 

Other prominent features _ 


2. Survival Gear Aboard (Circle Yes or No) 


Personal Flotation Devices 

Yes 

No 

Flares 

Yes 

No 

Flashlight 

Yes 

No 

Raft 

Yes 

No 

Dinghy or Tender 

Yes 

No 

r 9 

Anchor 

Yes 

No 

Spotlight 

Yes 

No 

Auxiliary power 

Yes 

No 

Horn 

Yes 

No 


3. Electronic Equipment 


Radiotelephone(s) 

VHF 

MF 

HF 

Channels/ Frequencies 

22 

Yes 

No; 

available 

2670 kHz 

Yes 

No 

Radar 


Yes 

No 

Depth Finder 


Yes 

No 

Loran 


Yes 

No 

Direction Finder 


Yes 

No 

EPIRB 


Yes 

No 


4. Vessel Owner I Operator 

Owner name _ 

Address _ 

Telephone number_ 

Operator’s name _ 

Address _ 


Telephone number_ 

Is owner/operator an experienced sailor? Yes No 

5. Miscellaneous 

Be prepared to describe local weather conditions. 


13-16 



















RADIOTELEPHONE 


8. Name of calling vessel and radio call sign (spoken 
once) 

9. The word OVER 

EXAMPLE: Urgency Call and Message 

(Not involving possible use of radiotelephone 
alarm) 

“PAN — PAN — PAN — ALL STATIONS 
(or a particular station) 

THIS IS — BLUE DUCK — BLUE DUCK — 
BLUE DUCK — WHISKEY ALFA 1234 
THREE MILES EAST OFF BARNEGAT 
LIGHT 

HAVE LOST MY RUDDER 

AM DRIFTING TOWARD SHORE AND 

REQUIRE TOW 

SEVEN PERSONS ON BOARD 

BLUE DUCK IS THIRTY-TWO FOOT 

CABIN CRUISER — BLUE HULL 

WHITE DECK HOUSE 

THIS IS — BLUE DUCK — WHISKEY 

ALFA 1234 

OVER” 

Safety Call and Message Procedures 

The Safety Call, headed with the word SECURI¬ 
TY (Say-curitay, spoken three times), is transmitted 
on the Distress and Calling frequency (Channel 16 
or 2182 kHz), together with a request to shift to a 
working frequency where the Safety Message will be 
given. The Safety Message may be given on any 
available working frequency. 

United States Coast Guard stations routinely use 
the Safety Call SECURITY to alert boating opera¬ 
tors that they are preparing to broadcast a message 
concerning safety of navigation. The call also pre¬ 
cedes an important meteorological warning. The 
Safety Message itself usually is broadcast on Coast 
Guard Channel 22 (157.1 MHz) and 2670 kHz. 
Although recreational boating operators may use 
the Safety Signal and Message, in many cases they 
would get better results and perhaps suffer less 
criticism by giving the information to the Coast 
Guard without making a formal Safety Call. The 
Coast Guard usually has better broadcast coverage 
from its shore stations and will rebroadcast the in¬ 
formation if it is appropriate. 


Sending the Safety Call and Message 

The Safety Call usually includes the following: 
(On Channel 16 or 2182 kHz.) 

1. The Safety Signal SECURITY (spoken three 
times) 

2. Addressee - ALL STATIONS (or a particular 
station) 

3. The words THIS IS (spoken once) 

4. Name of vessel calling and radio call sign 

5. Announcement of the working channel (fre¬ 
quency) where the Safety Message will be given 

6. Radio Call Sign 

7. The word OUT 

The Safety Message usually includes the follow¬ 
ing: 

1. Select working channel (frequency) announced in 
step 5 above 

2. The Safety Signal SECURITY (spoken three 
times) 

3. The words ALL STATIONS (spoken once) 

4. The words THIS IS (spoken once) 

5. Name of vessel calling and radio call sign 

6. Give the Safety Message 

7. Repeat the Radio Call Sign 

8. The word OUT 

EXAMPLES: Safety Call and Message 

on Channel 16 

“SECURITY — SECURITY — SECURITY 
— ALL STATIONS 

THIS IS — BLUE DUCK — WHISKEY 
ALFA 1234 

LISTEN CHANNEL 68 
WHISKEY ALFA 1234 — OUT 

on Channel 68 

“SECURITY — SECURITY — SECURITY 
— ALL STATIONS 

THIS IS — BLUE DUCK — WHISKEY 
ALFA 1234 

A LOG APPROXIMATELY TWENTY 
FEET LONG TWO FEET IN DIAMETER 
ADRIFT OFF HAINS POINT POTOMAC 
RIVER 

WHISKEY ALFA 1234 — OUT” 


13-17 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


Public Coast Stations 

General 

By utilizing the services of Public Coast Stations, 
ships may make and receive telephone calls to and 
from any telephone with access to the nationwide 
telephone network, including telephones overseas 
and on other ships and aircraft. In effect, these coast 
stations extend the talking range of ship telephones 
almost without limit. 

Description of Public Coast Stations 

Three categories of Public Coast Stations operate 
in different frequency bands to provide for tele¬ 
phone service over a wide range of situations. The 
following brief descriptions of these services are of 
interest in selecting a service appropriate for your re¬ 
quirements. This information is followed by some 
suggestions for operating ship stations on public 
correspondence channels. 

VHF-FM Service 

VHF-FM service offers reliable operation with 
good transmission quality over relatively short dis¬ 
tances up to 20-50 miles, using channels in the 157- 
162 MHz range. Channels 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 84,85, 
86 and 87 are available for assignment to public 
coast stations in the United States. Channels 26 and 
28 are used in more areas than any others. To obtain 
information on VHF-FM ship-to-shore telephone 
coverage in your area, call your local Marine 
Operator, according to instructions in your 
telephone directory. 

In addition, in some localities not yet served by 
VHF-FM coast stations, ships are permitted to 
make telephone calls through local VHF-FM base 
stations operating in the land mobile radio tele¬ 
phone service. In these instances, a different license 
authorization as well as different transmitting equip¬ 
ment is required. 

Medium Frequency Service 

The Medium Frequency Service operates over 
considerably greater distance ranges than VHF-FM, 
but ranges vary widely with time of day and a variety 
of other circumstances. Distances in excess of 1,000 


miles are possible at certain times, but may be 
limited to less than 100 miles at other times. 

Medium Frequency Coast Stations operate on 
frequencies in the 2 MHz band along the sea coasts 
and Gulf of Mexico. Stations serving the Great 
Lakes and the Mississippi River valley also operate 
on frequencies in the high-frequency bands. 

High Frequency 

A High Seas Service using high frequencies pro¬ 
vides long-range radiotelephone communications 
with suitably equipped vessels throughout the 
world. Service is provided via four coast stations 
within the United States coastal areas plus one sta¬ 
tion in the state of Hawaii. These stations operate on 
various radio channels in the 4 through 23 MHz 
bands and are equipped for single sideband oper¬ 
ation. 

Registration With Your Public Coast Station 

It is important for the vessel owner who plans on 
using the public radiotelephone service to register 
with the telephone company in the location where 
you wish to be billed. 

This registration provides all coast stations with 
the name and address to be used in billing for ship- 
originated calls. Public coast stations are supported 
by charges made in accordance with tariffs filed with 
regulatory authorities. If a ship is not registered, 
billing information must be passed to the coast sta¬ 
tion operator each time a call is made, with conse¬ 
quent expenditure of time and effort. Registration 
may also serve to establish the procedures under 
which a coast station will call the ship in completing 
land-originated calls. Should you encounter any 
problems, contact your local telephone company 
business office and request assistance in registering 
your vessel. 

Making Ship-To-Shore Calls 

Use the VHF-FM Service (up to 20 to 40 miles) in 
preference to the Medium Frequency or High Fre¬ 
quency Services, if within range. 

1. Select the public correspondence channel assign¬ 
ed to the desired shore station. Do not call on 
Channel 16 or on 2182 kHz except in an 
emergency. 


13-18 


RADIOTELEPHONE 


2. Listen to determine if the working channel of the 
desired coast station is busy. A busy condition is 
evidenced by hearing speech, signalling tones, or 
a busy signal. 

3. If the channel is busy, wait until it clears or switch 
to an alternate channel if available. 

4. If the channel is not busy, press the push-to-talk 
button and say: (Name of the coast station) — 
TH IS IS — (your call sign once). Do not call for 
more than a few seconds. 

5. Listen for a reply. If none is received, repeat call 
after an interval of two minutes. 

When the coast station operator answers, say: 

THIS IS — Name of vessel, call sign, and ship’s 
telephone or billing number (if assigned), CALL¬ 
ING (city, telephone number desired). 

If your vessel is not registered or if the coast sta¬ 
tion operator does not have the listing, the operator 
will ask for additional information for billing pur¬ 
poses. At completion of call say: 

Name of vessel — Call sign — OUT. 

Receiving Shore-to-Ship Calls 

Obviously, to receive public coast station calls, a 
receiver must be in operation on the proper channel. 
When calling on VHF-FM frequencies, coast sta¬ 
tions will call on Channel 16 unless you have 
selective signalling, in which case the shore station 
will dial your number on a working channel. When 
calling on SSB medium frequencies, the preferred 
channel is the working channel of the coast station. 
Bell System coast stations operating on channels in 
the 2 MHz band routinely call on a working chan¬ 
nel, but will call on 2182 kHz when requested to do 
so by the calling party. If you are expecting calls on 
medium frequencies and are not planning to 
monitor the working channel, you should tell pros¬ 
pective calling parties to so advise the Marine 
Operator. Note: A guard must be maintained on the 
distress, safety and calling channel; therefore a 
second channel receiver capability is essential if a 
guard is to be maintained on a coast station work¬ 
ing channel. 

Selective signalling, of course, requires a second 
receiver, since monitoring of the working channel 
would be essential. It is illegal to send dial pulses 
over Channel 16 or 2182 kHz. 


Making Ship-to-Ship Calls Through a Coast Sta¬ 
tion 

Although contacts between ships are normally 
made directly, ship-to-ship calls can be made by 
going through your coast station, using the same 
procedure as you do for the ship-to-shore calls. 


How to Place a Shore-to-Ship Call 

The basic procedure that the telephone sub¬ 
scriber should follow in placing a telephone call to a 
ship station from his home or office is found in the 
first few pages of most Telephone Directories. These 
instructions generally consist of dialing “0” (Zero) 
for the Operator, and asking for the “Marine 
Operator.” 

It is further necessary to know the name of the 
vessel being called (not the owner’s name) and the 
approximate location so that the Marine Operator 
may judge which coast station to place the call 
through. 

More specific information about the vessel is 
often useful. For instance, the channel generally 
monitored for receiving calls, a selective signalling 
number (if applicable), and the coast station through 
which calls can generally be received. 

Remember that the ship station generally operates 
using push-to-talk techniques, so that it is impossi¬ 
ble for you to break in while the ship station is being 
received. 


Limited Coast Stations 

The term limited coast stations includes coast 
stations which are there to serve the operational and 
business needs of vessels, but are not open to public 
correspondence. Many, such as those operated by a 
harbor master coordinating the movement of vessels 
within a confined area, or a station at a highway 
bridge, serve a safety function as well. Shore sta¬ 
tions operated by the United States Coast Guard 
provide a safety communications service rather than 
business or operational. They are classified as 
Government stations rather than as limited coast 
stations although they also are not open to public 
correspondence. 

While limited coast stations are not new to the 
Marine Service, most small vessel operators are 


13-19 



SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


finding this service available for the first time on 
VHF-FM. Thus, tug companies may have a limited 
coast station for the purpose of dispatching their 
own tugs. A fleet of fishing vessels may be directed 
from a limited coast station operated by a fish 
cannery. 

Yacht clubs having docking facilities, marina 
operators, ship chandlers, boatels, harbor masters, 
dock-side restaurants, marine police, and marine 
radio service shops are among those who maintain 
and operate limited coast stations as a part of their 
regular operations. No charge is made for the com¬ 
munications service, which is incidental to their 
business. 

How to Use the Services of Limited Coast Stations 

Vessels should call limited coast stations on the 
limited coast station’s working channel. All limited 


coast stations have Channel 16 plus one or more 
working channels. Limited coast stations, on the 
other hand, will call boats on Channel 16; therefore 
you do not need to monitor his working channel 
even if you are expecting a call. 

As a general rule, limited coast stations operate 
only during their normal working hours. The call¬ 
ing procedure to use is the same as you would use to 
call another vessel except that you should initiate the 
call on the coast station’s working channel. Be sure 
to give them plenty of time to answer your call as 
operating the radio is secondary to the operator’s 
normal tasks. Many of these stations monitor Chan¬ 
nel 16 as well as their working channels. If you don’t 
know their assigned working channel, or if they 
don’t appear to be watching their working channel, 
call on Channel 16. 


13-20 


Appendix A 


Bibliography 


Blanchard, Fessenden S., The Sailboat Classes of North 
America. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 

1968 (revised). 

Bowker, R.M. and Budd, S.A., Make Your Own Sails. 
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1959. 

Coles, Adlard, Heavy Weather Sailing. Tuckahoe, N.Y.: 
John de Graff, Inc., 1972 (revised). 

Cotter, Edward F., Multihull Sailboats. New York: 
Crown Publishers, 1966. 

Duffett, John, Modern Marine Maintenance. New York: 
Motor Boating & Sailing Books, 1973. 

Falk, Stephen, The Fundamentals of Sailboat Racing. 
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973. 

Giannoni, Frances and John, Useful Knots and Line 
Handling. New York: Golden Press, 1968. 

Gibbs, Tony, Advanced Sailing. New York: St. Martin’s 
Press, 1975. 

Hankinson, Ken, Rigging Small Sailboats. Bellflower, 
Calif.: Glen-L, 1973. 

Henderson, Richard, Better Sailing. Chicago,: Henry 
Regnery Co., 1977. 

Henderson, Richard, Sea Sense. Camden, Me.: Inter¬ 
national Marine Publishing Co., 1972. 

Howard-Williams, Jeremy, Sails. Tuckahoe, N.Y.: John 
de Graff, Inc., 1971. 


Imhoff, Fred, and Pranger, Lex, Boat Tuning for Speed. 
Boston: Sail Books, Inc., 1975. 

Kotsch, William J., Weather for the Mariner. Annapolis, 
Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1977 (revised). 

McCollam, Jim, The Yachtsman’s Weather Manual. New 
York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1973. 

Phillips-Birt, Douglas, Sailing Yacht Design. London: 
Adlard Coles, Ltd., 1966. 

Robinson, Bill (ed.), The Science of Sailing. New York: 
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1961. 

Ross, Wallace, Sail Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 

1974. 

Sail, The Best of Sail Trim. Boston: Sail Books, Inc., 

1975. 

Ship’s Medicine Chest and Medical Aid at Sea. U. S. 
Dept, of Health, Education and Welfare. 1978. 

Shufeldt, H.H. and Dunlap, G.D., Piloting and Dead 
Reckoning. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 
1970. 

Smith, Hervey Garrett, The Arts of the Sailor. New Y ork: 
Frink & Wagnalls, 1968. 

Watts, Alan, Wind and Sailing Boats. Chicago: 
Quadrangle Books, 1970. 


A-l 





































Appendix B 


Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) 


Vessel Traffic Services (VTS) have been established by 
the Coast Guard to reduce danger of collision in certain 
areas where ship traffic is heavy. VTS consists of one or 
both of two components, depending on the area: (1) all 
have a ship (Communications) reporting system; and (2) 
some have a Traffic Separation Scheme. 

Vessel Traffic Services are established in the ports of 
New Orleans, Houston/Galvaston, San Francisco, and 
Valdez, and also in Puget Sound and its approaches. 
More are planned. Some Canadian waters used fre¬ 
quently by American yachts have an equivalent — Vessel 
Traffic Management System (VTMS). 

If you are sailing in waters where there is a VTS you 
must learn its location and to recognize any buoys mark¬ 


ing a traffic separation scheme if any. You should never 
travel the “wrong way” in any one-way lane or anchor in a 
traffic separation scheme. If you must cross a lane, do so 
at right angles to it. Realize that you are sailing where a 
ship is most likely to pass. 

It is a good idea to listen to the radio communications 
between ships in the system and the Coast Guard’s Vessel 
Traffic Center for information about any ship in your 
proximity. VTS does not invite radio communications 
from pleasure boats. Any contact with the Coast Guard is 
normally made on Channel 16, the Distress, Safety, and 
Calling frequency. In an extreme situation VTS may be 
reached as illustrated. (No VTS monitors Channel 16 ex¬ 
cept Valdez as shown). See Chapt. 13. 


ASSIGNED VHF CHANNELS FOR VTS LOCATIONS 


VTS LOCATION 

6 

11 

12 

VHF CHANN 

13* 

ELS 

1 4 

16 

18 

2 2 

6 7* 

HOUSTON/ 

GALVESTON 




• 






NEW ORLEANS 


♦ 

♦ 


♦ 




* 

NEW YORK 


♦ 

♦ 

• 

♦ 





SAN FRANCISCO 



• 

♦ 



• 



SEATTLE** 




• 

♦ 





VALDEZ 

• 



♦ 


• 


• 



♦CHANNEL 13 IS THE BRIDGE-TO-BRIDGE FREQUENCY IN ALL AREAS EXCEPT NEW ORLEANS 
AND THE INTRA-COASTAL WATERWAY WHICH USES CHANNEL 67. 

♦♦MORE CHANNELS PLANNED 


LEGEND =^ = VTS WORKING FREQUENCY 

= # = M0NIT0RED FREQUENCY BY VTS 


B-l 











































































































Appendix C 


Glossary 


A 

ABAFT - Toward the rear (stern) of the boat. Behind. 

ABEAM - A direction at right angles to the keel of the 
boat. 

ABOARD - On or within the boat. 

ABOVE DECK - On the deck (not over it — see ALOFT). 

ABREAST - Side by side; by the side of. 

ADRIFT - Loose, not on moorings or towline. 

AFT - Toward the stern of the boat. 

AGROUND - Touching or fast to the bottom. 

AHEAD - Toward the bow or forward. 

AIDS TO NAVIGATION - Artificial objects to supple¬ 
ment natural landmarks in indicating safe and unsafe 
waters. 

ALEE - Away from the direction of the wind. Opposite of 
windward. 

ALOFT - High above the deck of the boat. 

AMIDSHIPS - In or toward the center of the boat. 

ANCHORAGE - A place suitable for anchoring in 
relation to the wind, seas and bottom. 

ANEMOMETER - A device which measures the velocity 
of the wind. 

APPARENT WIND - The wind perceived in a moving 
boat which is the combination of the true wind and the 
wind of motion. 

ASTERN - In back of the boat, opposite of ahead. 

ATHWARTSHIPS - At right angles to the centerline of 
the boat; rowboat seats are generally athwartships. 

AWEIGH - The position of anchor as it is raised clear of 
the bottom. 


B 

BACKSTAY - Standing rigging that supports the mast 
from aft to keep it in an upright position. Running 
backstays (always in pairs) perform the same function, 
but may be quickly slackened to avoid interfering with 
the boom. 


BACKWIND - When wind is deflected from one sail to 
the lee side of another sail, as when the jib is backwind- 
ing the main. 

BALLAST - Heavy material placed in the bottom of a 
boat to provide stability. 

BARE POLES - When a sailboat is under way with no 
sails set. 

BAROMETER - An instrument for measuring the 
atmospheric pressure. 

BATTEN - A thin semi-rigid strip inserted in the leach of 
the sail to provide support for the sail material. 

BATTEN DOWN - Secure hatches and loose objects 
both within the hull and on deck. 

BEAM - The greatest width of the boat. 

BEAM REACH - Sailing with the apparent wind coming 
at right angles to the boat. 

BEAR - To “bear down” is to approach from windward, 
to “bear off’ is to sail away to leeward. 

BEARING - The direction of an object expressed either 
as a true bearing as shown on the chart, or as a bearing 
relative to the heading of the boat. 

BEAT - To sail to windward, generally in a series of tacks. 
Beating is one of the three points of sailing, also refer¬ 
red to as sailing close hauled or by the wind. 

BECALMED - Having no wind to provide movement of 
the boat through the water. 

BECKET - A looped rope, hook and eye, strap, or 
grommet used for holding ropes, spars, or oars in 
position. 

BEFORE THE WIND - Traveling in the same direction 
the wind is blowing toward; sailing before the wind is a 
point of sailing, also called running. 

BELAY - To make a line fast. A command to stop. 

BELOW - Beneath the deck. 

BEND - To attach a sail to a spar. Also used as a term to 
describe a knot which fastens one line to another. 

BIGHT - A loop in a line of rope; a bend in a river; a bend 
in the shoreline making a cove or a bay. 

BILGE - The interior of the hull below the floor boards. 

BINNACLE - A stand holding the steering compass. 


C-l 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


BITT - A heavy and firmly mounted piece of wood or 
metal used for securing lines. 

BITTER END - The last part of a rope or chain. The 
inboard end of the anchor rode. 

BLANKET - To deprive a sail of the wind by interposing 
another object. 

BLOCK - A wooden or metal case enclosing one or more 
pulleys and having a hook, eye, or strap by which it may 
be attached (see SHEAVE). 

BOAT - A fairly indefinite term. A waterborne vehicle 
smaller than a ship. One definition is a small craft 
carried aboard a ship. 

BOAT HOOK - A staff with a fitting at one end shaped to 
facilitate use in putting a line over a piling, recovering 
an object dropped overboard, or in pushing or fending 
off. 

BOLLARD - A heavy post set into the edge of a wharf or 
pier to which the lines of a ship may be made fast. 

BOLT ROPE - Line attached to the foot and luff of a sail 
to give it strength or to substitute for sail slides. 

BOOM - A spar attached to the mast for extending the 
foot of the sail. 

BOOM CROTCH or CRUTCH - A notched board orX- 
shaped frame that supports the main boom and keeps it 
from swinging when the sail is not raised. 

BOOMKIN - A short spar or structure projecting from 
the stern to which a sheet block is attached for an over¬ 
hanging boom, and to which, on boats without running 
backstays, is attached the fixed backstay. 

BOOM VANG - A tackle running from the boom to the 
deck which will flatten the curve of the sail by pulling 
downward on the boom. 

BOOT TOP - A line (of several inches’ width) painted 
above and along the waterline. 

BOW - The forward part of a boat. 

BOW LINE - A docking line leading from the bow. 

BOWLINE - A knot used to form a temporary loop in the 
end of a line. 

BOWSPRIT - A spar extending forward from the bow. 

BRIDGE - The location from which certain vessels are 
conned and controlled, (for sailboats, see COCKPIT). 

BRIDLE - A line or wire secured at both ends in order to 
distribute a strain between two points. 

BRIGHTWORK - Varnished woodwork and or polished 
metal. 

BROACH - The turning of a boat broadside to the waves, 
subjecting it to possible capsizing. 

BROAD ON THE BEAM - Bearing at right angles to the 
direction. To the boat’s heading. 

BROAD ON THE BOW - A direction midway between 
abeam and dead ahead. 

BROAD ON THE QUARTER - A direction midway 
between abeam and dead astern. 


BROAD REACH - Sailing with the apparent wind 
coming over either quarter. 

BULKHEAD - A vertical partition separating compart¬ 
ments. 

BULWARK - The side of a vessel when carried above the 
level of the deck. 

BUOY - An anchored float used for marking a position 
on the water or a hazard or a shoal and for mooring. 

BURDENED VESSEL - That vessel which, according to 
the applicable Rules of the Road, must give way to the 
privileged vessel. The term has been superceded by the 
term “give-way”. 

BURGEE - A small yachting flag which is either swallow 
tailed or pointed. 

BY THE LEE - Sailing with the wind on the same side as 
the boom; not a recommended point of sailing as it 
could cause an accidental jibe. 

BY THE WIND - Sailing close hauled, beating. 

C 

CABIN - A compartment for passengers or crew. 

CAPSIZE - To turn over. 

CARVEL - Smooth planked hull construction (see 
LAPSTRAKE). 

CAST OFF - To let go mooring lines. 

CATAMARAN - A twin-hulled boat, with hulls side by 
side. 

CATBOAT - A sailboat with a single sail attached to a 
mast stepped well forward. 

CAULK - To stop up and make watertight by filling with 
a waterproof compound or material. 

CENTERBOARD - A plate, in a vertical fore-and-aft 
plane, that is pivoted at the lower forward end, and can 
be lowered or raised through a slot in the bottom of the 
boat to reduce leeway. 

CENTER OF EFFORT - The center of wind pressure on 
a sail. 

CENTER OF LATERAL RESISTANCE - The center of 
underwater resistance which is approximately the cen¬ 
ter of underwater profile. 

CHAFING GEAR - Tubing or cloth wrapping used to 
protect a line from chafing on a rough surface. 

CHAIN PLATE - Metal strap fastened to the side of a 
boat, to which a stay or shroud is attached. 

CHART - A map for use by navigators. 

CHART NO. 1 - A booklet prepared by the National 
Ocean Survey which contains symbols and abbrevia¬ 
tions that have been approved for use on nautical 
charts published by the U.S. Government. Past edi¬ 
tions of this chart were in actual chart form. 

CHINE - The intersection of the bottom and sides of a 
boat (see HARD CHINE). 


C-2 


GLOSSARY 


CHOCK - A fitting through which anchor or mooring 
lines are led. Usually U-shaped to reduce chafe. 

CLEAT - A fitting to which lines are made fast. The 
classic cleat to which lines are belayed is approx¬ 
imately anvil-shaped. 

CLEW - The after, lower corner of a sail to which is 
attached the sheets. 

CLOSE ABOARD - Not on but near to a vessel. 

CLOSE HAULED - Sailing as close to the wind as is 
possible, beating, or by the wind, one of the three points 
of sailing. 

CLOSE REACH - Sailing with the sheets slightly eased 
and the apparent wind forward of the beam. 

CLOVE HITCH - A knot for temporarily fastening a line 
to a spar or piling. 

COAMING - A vertical piece around the edge of a cock¬ 
pit, hatch, etc. to prevent water on deck from running 
below. 

COCKPIT - An opening in the deck from which the boat 
is handled. 

COIL - A series of loops or rings of line or rope. An elec¬ 
trical component of a boat’s engine which transforms 
direct current from the battery into alternating current. 

COIL DOWN - To flemish down. 

COLLAR - The reinforced opening in the deck or cabin 
roof through which the mast passes. This opening is 
constructed to take the strain of the mast. 

COMING ABOUT - The changing of course when close 
hauled by swinging the bow through the eye of the wind 
and changing from one tack to another. 

COURSE - The direction in which a boat is steered. 

CRADLE - A framework, generally of wood, to support 
a boat when it is out of the water. 

CRINGLE - A ring sewn into a sail through which a line 
may be passed. 

CUDDY - A small shelter cabin in a boat. 

CUNNINGHAM - A grommeted hole in the mainsail luff 
slightly above the foot through which a line or hook is 
pulled downward to exert stress on the luff, thereby 
flattening the sail. 

CURRENT - The horizontal movement of water. 

CUTTER - A single masted sailboat with the mast 
stepped further aft than that of a sloop. 

D 

DAGGERBOARD - A plate, in a vertical fore-and-aft 
plane which can be lowered and raised vertically 
through a slot in the bottom of a boat to reduce leeway. 

DAVITS - Mechanical arms extending over the side or 
stern of a vessel, or over a sea wall, to lift a smaller boat 
(Pronounced “DAY-VITS”). 

DEAD AHEAD - Directly ahead. 

DEAD ASTERN - Opposite of dead ahead. 


DEAD RECKONING - A plot of courses steered and dis¬ 
tances traveled through the water. 

DECK - A permanent covering over a compartment, hull 
or any part thereof. 

DINGHY - A small open boat. A dinghy is often used as a 
tender for a larger craft. 

DISPLACEMENT - The weight of water displaced by a 
floating vessel, thus, a boat’s weight. 

DISPLACEMENT HULL - A type of hull that plows 
through the water, displacing a weight of water equal to 
its own weight, even when more power is added. 

DOCK - A protected water area in which vessels are 
moored. The term is often used to denote a pier or a 
wharf. 

DOLPHIN - A group of piles driven close together and 
bound with wire cables into a single structure. 

DOUSE - To lower sails quickly. 

DOWNHAUL - A line attached to the boom at the tack 
area of the sail in order to pull the luff of the sail 
downward. 

DRAFT - The depth of water a boat draws. 

DROGUE - Any device streamed astern to check a ves¬ 
sel’s speed, or to keep its stern up to the waves in a 
following sea. 

E 

EASE OFF - To slacken or relieve tension on a line. 

EBB TIDE - A receding tide. 

ENSIGN - A national or organizational flag flown 
aboard a vessel. 

EVEN KEEL - When a boat is floating on its designed 
waterline it is said to be floating on an even keel. 

EYE BOLT - A bolt having a looped head designed to 
receive a hook or towing line. This bolt is usually bolted 
through the deck or stem. 

EYE OF THE WIND - The direction from which the 
wind is blowing. 

EYE SPLICE - A permanent loop spliced in the end of a 
line. 

F 

FAIRLEAD - A fitting used to change the direction of a 
line. 

FALL OFF - To turn the bow of the boat away from the 
eye of the wind. 

FAST - Said of an object that is secured to another. 

FATHOM - Six feet. 

FENDER - A cushion or pad used between boats, or be¬ 
tween a boat and a pier to prevent chafing. 

FIGURE EIGHT KNOT - A knot in the form of a figure 
eight, placed in the end of a line to prevent the line from 
passing through a grommet or block. 

FIN KEEL - A thin narrow keel bolted to the bottom of 
the hull. 


C-3 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


FISHERMAN’S BEND - A knot for making fast to a 
buoy or spar or to the ring of an anchor. 

FLARE - The outward curve of a vessel’s sides near the 
bow. A distress signal. 

FLEMISH DOWN - A decorative but useless method of 
coiling a line flat on the deck or dock. 

FLOOD TIDE - A rising tide. 

FLOORBOARDS - The surface of the cockpit on which 
the crew stand. 

FLUKE - The palm of an anchor. 

FLY - A pennant at the masthead. 

FOLLOWING SEA - Waves moving as the same direc¬ 
tion as the boat. 

FOOT - The lower edge of a sail. 

FORE-AND-AFT - In a line parallel to the keel. 

FOREPEAK - A compartment in the bow of a small 
boat. 

FORESAIL - The sail set abaft the foremast of a 
schooner. 

FORWARD - Toward the bow of the boat. 

FOULED - Any piece of equipment that is jammed, en¬ 
tangled, or dirtied. 

FOUNDER - When a vessel fills with water and sinks. 

FREEBOARD - The minimum vertical distance from the 
surface of the water to the gunwale. 

FULL AND BY - Close hauled. 

FURL - To roll up a sail on top of a boom or spar and 
secure it with small lines. 


G 

GAFF - A spar to support the head of a gaff sail. 

GALLEY - The kitchen area of a boat. 

GANGWAY - The area of a ship’s side where people 
board and disembark. 

GANGPLANK - The temporary ramp or platform 
between the vessel and the wharf or pier. 

GASKET - A sail stop. 

GEAR - A general term for ropes, blocks, tackle and 
other equipment. 

GIVE-WAY VESSEL - A term used to describe the vessel 
which must yield in meeting, crossing, or overtaking 
situations. 

GOOSENECK - A universal joint connecting the mast 
and the boom, allowing movement of the boom in any 
direction. 

GRAB RAILS - Hand-hold fittings mounted on cabin 
tops and sides for personal safety when moving around 
the boat. 

GROUND TACKLE - A collective term for the anchor 
and its associated gear. 


GUDGEON - The eye supports for the rudder mounted 
on the transom which receive the pintles of the rudder. 
GUNWALE - The upper edge of a boat’s sides (Pro¬ 
nounced “GUN’L”). 


H 

HALYARD - A line or wire used to hoist the sails or flags. 

HANKS - Snap hooks which attach the luff of a headsail 
to the forestay. 

HARD ALEE - The operation of putting the helm (tiller) 
to the lee side of the boat when coming about. 

HARD CHINE - An abrupt intersection between the hull 
side and the hull bottom of a boat so constructed. 

HATCH - An opening in a boat’s deck fitted with a water¬ 
tight cover. 

HAWSER - A heavy rope or cable used for mooring or 
towing. 

HEAD - A marine toilet. Also the upper corner of a tri¬ 
angular sail. 

HEADER - A change in wind direction which will head 
or impede progress in an intended direction. 

HEADSAILS - Sails forward of the foremost mast. 

HEAD UP - Swing the bow closer to the eye of the wind. 

HEADING - The direction in which a vessel’s bow points 
at any given time. 

HEADWAY - The forward motion of a boat. Opposite of 
sternway. 

HEAVE TO - To bring a vessel up in a position where it 
will maintain little or no headway, usually with the bow 
into the wind or nearly so. 

HEEL - To tip to one side temporarily because of an 
external force such as the wind’s pressure on the sails. 
Also, the base or bottom of the mast. 

HELM - The wheel or tiller controlling the rudder. (Also 
see LEE HELM, WEATHER HELM). 

HELMSPERSON - The person who steers the boat. 

HIKING OUT - The position one assumes when posi¬ 
tioned on the weather rail in an effort to balance the 
heeling forces of the wind upon the sails and or rigging. 

HIKING STICK - A short stick attached to the tiller 
which allows the helmsperson to hike out while steer¬ 
ing the boat. 

HITCH - A knot used to secure a rope to another object 
or to another rope, or to form a loop or a noose in a 
rope. 

HOLD - A compartment below deck in a large vessel, 
used solely for carrying cargo. 

HORSE - The wire or rope bridle to which is attached the 
block through which the sheet(s) run through. 

HULL - The main body of a vessel. 

HULL SPEED - The maximum displacement speed. 


C-4 


GLOSSARY 


I 

IN IRONS - Stalled. Said of a sailboat headed into the eye 
of the wind, with no wind pressure on either side of the 
sails. 

INITIAL STABILITY - A boat’s tendency to resist initial 
heel from the upright position. 

J 

JIB - A triangular sail set forward of the mainmast (sloop, 
cutter, ketch, yawl) or the foremast (schooner). 

JIBE - The maneuver of changing the sail (and boom) 
from one side of the boat to the other. Usually used as a 
method of changing course while keeping the wind 
astern. 

JIB SHEET - The line, usually paired, controlling the 
lateral movement of the jib. 

JIB STAY - A stay running from the bow to the upper 
part of the mast on which the jib is attached. 

JUMPER - A stay on the upper forward part of the mast. 

JUMPER STAYS - The wire which runs over the ends of 
the jumper strut to provide support for the mast against 
the pull of the backstay. 

JUMPER STRUTS - Short horizontal spars placed 
above the union of the forestay and the mast designed 
to balance the pull of the backstay upon the mast. 


K 

KEDGE - A light anchor used for moving a boat. Also the 
traditional yachtsman’s anchor. 

KEEL - The centerline of a boat running fore and aft; the 
backbone of a vessel. 

KEEL BOAT - A boat with a fixed keel as opposed to a 
boat with a centerboard or daggerboard. 

KETCH - A two-masted sailboat with the smaller after 
mast stepped ahead of the rudder post. 

KNOCKDOWN - When a boat is laid over on its beam 
ends by wind or sea, allowing water to come in over the 
gunwales. 

KNOT - A measure of speed equal to one nautical mile 
(6076.1 feet) per hour. 

KNOT - A fastening made by interweaving rope to form a 
stopper, to enclose or bind an object, to form a loop or 
a noose, to tie a small rope to an object, or to tie the 
ends of two small ropes together. 

L 

LAPSTR AKE - Hull construction of overlapping planks; 
also known as clinker-built construction (see 
CARVEL). 


LATEEN RIG - A fore and aft sailing rig originating in 
the near east and still found there, consisting of a tri¬ 
angular (lateen) sail, one side of which is very short, 
slung from a lateen yard, a long, moveable spar which 
crosses the relatively short mast at an angle. 

LATERAL RESISTANCE - That resistance to the lee¬ 
way or sideways movement of a boat caused by wind or 
wave forces determined by the amount of heel, keel or 
centerboard below the water line. 

LATITUDE - The distance north or south of the equator 
measured and expressed in degrees. 

LAY - To lay a mark is to be able to reach it without 
tacking, close hauled. The lay of a line is the direction in 
which its strands are twisted. 

LAZARETTE - A storage space in a boat’s stern area. 

LEE - The side sheltered from the wind. 

LEEBOARD - Pivoted board attached to the side of a 
sailboat to reduce leeway; usually one on either side, 
that to leeward being lowered when in use. 

LEECH - The after edge of a fore-and-aft sail. 

LEE HELM - The condition, in a sailing vessel, when the 
helm must be kept to leeward to hold a boat on her 
course. 

LEEWARD - The direction away from the wind. Oppo¬ 
site of windward. 

LEEWAY - The sideways movement of the boat caused 
by either wind or current. 

LIFT - An increase in the wind’s force, causing an 
increase of heel of a boat close-hauled, shifting the 
center of effort forward, allowing the boat to sail, often 
advantageously, closer to the wind and faster; some¬ 
times said of a similarly advantageous shift in wind di¬ 
rection; being lifted is the opposite of being headed (see 
HEADER; also see TOPPING LIFT). 

LINE - Rope and cordage used aboard a vessel. 

LOG - A record of courses or operation. Also, a device to 
measure speed. 

LONGITUDE - The distance in degrees east or west of 
the meridian at Greenwich, England. 

LONG SPLICE - A method of joining two ropes by 
splicing without increasing the diameter of the rope. 

LOOSE-FOOTED - A sail secured to the boom at the 
tack and the clew only as opposed to a sail secured with 
slides. 

LOWER SHROUDS - The shrouds which run from the 
chain plates at the sides of the boat to the mast just 
beneath the intersection of the spreaders. 

LUBBER’S LINE - A mark or permanent line on a com¬ 
pass indicating the direction forward parallel to the 
keel when properly installed. 

LUFF - The forward edge of a sail; also the action of 
heading up into the wind causing the sail to flutter. 


C-5 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


M 

MAINMAST - The principal mast of a sailboat. 

MAINSAIL - The principal sail that sets on the main¬ 
mast. 

MAINSHEET - The sheet controlling the athwartships 
movement of a mainsail. 

MARLINSPIKE - A tool for opening the strands of a 
rope while splicing. 

MAST - A spar set upright to support rigging and sails. 

MAST STEP-The shaped brace on which, or into which, 
the butt of the mast rests. 

MIDSHIP - Approximately in the location equally dis¬ 
tant from the bow and stern. 

MIZZEN - The after and smaller mast of a ketch or yawl; 
also a sail set on that mast. 

MIZZENMAST - (see MIZZEN). 

MOORING - An arrangement for securing a boat to a 
mooring buoy or a pier. 

MOORING PENNANT - A line used to secure a boat to 
a mooring buoy, which is permanently attached to the 
buoy’s ring. 

N 

NAUTICAL MILE - The length of 1 minute of latitude of 
any great circle of the earth (such as the Equator), con¬ 
sidered to be exactly 1852 meters, approximately 
6076.1 feet; about 1.15 statute miles. 

NAVIGATION - The art and science of conducting a 
boat safely from one point to another. 

O 

OFF THE WIND - Sailing downwind (away from the eye 
of the wind). 

OUTBOARD - Toward or beyond the boat’s sides. A de¬ 
tachable engine mounted on a boat’s stern. 

OUTHAUL - A line, or block and tackle, for stretching 
the foot of a sail out along the boom. 

OVERBOARD - Over the side or out of the boat. 

r t 

P 

PAINTER - A line attached to the bow of a boat for use in 
towing or making fast. 

PALM - A leather fitting placed over the hand to assist in 
sewing heavy material with a needle and thread. 

PAY OUT - To ease out a line, or let it run in a controlled 
manner. 

PEAK - The upper outer corner of a gaff sail. 

PENNANT (sometimes PENDANT) - The line by which 
a boat is made fast to a mooring buoy. 

PIER - A loading platform extending at an angle from the 
shore. 


PILE - A wood, metal or concrete pole driven into the 
bottom. Craft may be made fast to a pile; it may be used 
to support a pier (see PILING) or a float. 

PILING - Support, protection for wharves, piers, etc. 
constructed of piles (see PILE). 

PILOTING - Navigation by use of visible references, the 
depth of the water, etc. 

PINCH - To sail a boat too close to the wind causing the 
sails to stall. 

PINTLE - The pin-like fittings of the rudder which are 
inserted into the gudgeons mounted on the transom. 

PITCH POLING - A boat is being thrown end-over-end 
in very rough seas. 

PLANING - A boat is said to be planing when it is essen¬ 
tially moving over the top of the water rather than 
through the water. 

PLANING HULL - A type of hull shaped to glide easily 
across the water at high speed. 

POINT - One of 32 points of the compass. Equals 111/4 
degrees. 

PORT - The left side of a boat looking forward. A harbor. 

PORT TACK - Sailing with the wind coming over the 
port side of the boat causing the main boom to be on 
the starboard side of the boat. 

PRIVILEGED VESSEL - A vessel which, according to 
the applicable Rules of the Road, has right-of-way (this 
term has been superceded by the term “stand-on”). 

PUFF - A term used to describe a gust of wind. 

Q 

QUARTER - The corners of the transom; the sides of a 
boat aft of amidships. 

QUARTERING SEA - Sea coming on a boat’s quarter. 

R 

RAKE - The angle of a mast from the perpendicular, 
usually aft. 

REACH - The point of sailing between close hauled and 
running, one of the points of sailing. Subdivided into 
close, beam and broad reach. 

READY ABOUT - The preparatory command given 
before “hard alee” when tacking (passing the bow 
through the eye of the wind). 

REEF - To reduce the sail area. 

REEF POINTS - Short lines set into the lower portion of 
the sail to secure its foot when reefed. 

REEVE - To pass a line through a block or other open¬ 
ing. 

RIG - The arrangement of a boat’s sails, masts and 
rigging. 

RIGGING - The general term for all the lines and fittings 
of a vessel. 


C-6 


GLOSSARY 


ROACH - The outward curve at the leech of a sail. 

RODE - The anchor line and/or chain. 

ROLLER FURLING - Type of jib rigged to furl by 
rolling up around its own luff. 

ROLLER REEFING - Reefing by rolling a mainsail 
around a boom. 

ROPE - In general, cordage as it is purchased at the store. 
When it comes aboard a vessel and is put to use it 
becomes line. 

RUDDER - A vertical plate or board for steering a boat. 

RULES OF THE ROAD-The regulations governing the 
movement of vessels in relation to each other, gen¬ 
erally called steering and sailing rules. 

RUN - To allow a line to feed freely. 

RUNNING - Sailing before the wind; sailing with the 
wind astern. 

RUNNING LIGHTS - Lights required to be shown on 
boats underway between sundown and sunup. 

RUNNING RIGGING - Sheets, halyards, topping lifts, 
downhauls, vangs, etc., used for raising and adjusting 
sails (see STANDING RIGGING). 

S 

SAILING FREE - Sailing with the wind aft (running). 

SAILS - Flexible vertical airfoils, generally made of 
cloth, that use wind pressure to propel a boat. 

SAIL STOPS - Short length of line used to wrap around 
the sail when it is bundled up or furled. 

SAMSON POST - A single bitt in the bow or stern of a 
boat, fastened to structural members. 

SCOPE - The ratio of the length of an anchor line, from a 
vessel’s bow to the anchor, to the depth of the water. 

SCREW - A boat’s propeller. 

SCULLING - Moving the tiller or an oar back and forth 
to propel a boat ahead. 

SEA ANCHOR - Any device used to reduce a boat’s drift 
before the wind. Compare with DROGUE. 

SEA ROOM - A safe distance from the shore or other 
hazards. 

SEA WORTHY - A boat or a boat’s gear able to meet the 
usual sea conditions. 

SECURE - To make fast. 

SEIZE - To bind two lines together with light line. 

SET - Direction toward which the current is flowing. 

SET FLYING - Said of a sail made fast only at its corners, 
such as a spinnaker. 

SHACKLE - A “U” shaped connector with a pin or bolt 
across the open end. 

SHEAVE - The grooved wheel or roller in a block 
(pulley). Sheave is pronounced “shiv”. 

SHEER - The fore-and-aft curvature of the deck as 
shown in side elevation. 


SHEET - The line used to control the forward orathwart- 
ships movement of a sail. 

SHEET BEND - A knot used to join two ropes. Func¬ 
tionally different from a square knot in that it can be 
used between lines of different diameters. 

SHIP-A larger vessel usually thought of as being used for 
ocean travel. A vessel able to carry a “boat” on board. 

SHORT SPLICE - A method of permanently joining the 
ends of two ropes. 

SHROUD - The standing rigging that supports the mast 
at the sides of the boat. 

SLACK - Not fastened; loose. Also, to loosen. 

SLACK WATER - The period of tide change when there 
is no movement of water. 

SLIDES - The hardware which attaches either the foot or 
the luff of the sail to a track on the respective spar. 

SLOOP - A single masted sailing vessel with working sails 
(jib and main) set fore and aft. 

SLUG - A fitting which is inserted into a groove on either 
the mast or the boom providing attachment for either 
the luff or the foot of the sail respectively. 

SNATCH BLOCK - A block that opens at the side to al¬ 
low a line to be inserted or removed without reeving the 
entire length of line. 

SOLE - Cabin or saloon floor. Timber extensions on the 
bottom of the rudder. Also the molded fiberglass deck 
of a cockpit. 

SOUNDING - A measurement of the depth of water. 

SPAR - A general term for masts, yards, booms, etc. 

SPINNAKER - A large, light-weather headsail used for 
running or reaching. 

SPLICE - To permanently join two ropes by tucking their 
strands alternately over and under each other. 

SPREADER - A horizontal strut used to increase the 
angle at which the shrouds approach the mast. 

SPRING LINE - A pivot line used in docking, undock¬ 
ing, or to prevent the boat from moving forward or 
astern while made fast to a dock. 

SQUALL - A sudden, violent wind often accompanied by 
rain. 

SQUARE KNOT - A knot used to join two lines of 
similar size. Also called a reef knot. 

STANDING PART - That part of a line which is made 
fast. The main part of a line as distinguished from the 
bight and the end. 

STANDING RIGGING - The permanent shrouds and 
stays that support the mast. 

STAND-ON VESSEL - That vessel which has right-of- 
way during a meeting, crossing, or overtaking situa¬ 
tion. 

STARBOARD - The right side of a boat when looking 
forward. 


C-7 


SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP 


STARBOARD TACK - Sailing with the wind coming 
over the starboard side of the boat and with the boom 
out over the port side of the boat. 

STAY - That part of the standing rigging supporting the 
mast from forward and aft. 

STAYSAIL - A sail (usually triangular) set on one of the 
stays. 

STEM - The foremost upright timber of a vessel to which 
the keel and ends of the planks are attached. 

STEM - The forwardmost part of the bow. 

STEP - A socket in the bottom of the boat which receives 
the heel of the mast. 

STERN - The after part of the boat. 

STERN LINE - A docking line leading from the stern. 

STOCK - The cross bar of an anchor. 

STORM SAILS - Small sails for heavy weather sailing. 

STOW - To put an item in its proper place. 

SWAMP - To fill with water, but not settle to the bottom. 

SWING KEEL - A weighted extension of the keel which 
can be partially retracted into the hull or locked in the 
fully-lowered position. 

T 

TABERNACLE - A hinged fitting at the base of the mast 
to enable the mast to be easily raised or lowered. 

TABLING - An extra thickness of cloth sewn around the 
sail’s edges and at the corners. 

TACK - To come about; the lower forward corner of a 
sail; sailing with the wind on a given side of the boat, as 
starboard or port tack. 

TACKING - Moving the boat’s bow through the wind’s 
eye from close hauled on one tack to close hauled on the 
other tack. Same as coming about. 

TACKLE - A combination of blocks and line to increase 
mechanical advantage. Pronounced “taakle”. 

TANG - A fitting on a spar to which standing rigging is 
secured. 

THWART - A seat or brace running laterally across a 
boat. 

TH W ARTSHIPS - At right angles to the centerline of the 
boat. 

TIDE - The periodic rise and fall of water level in the 
oceans. 

TILLER - A bar or handle for turning a boat’s rudder or 
an outboard motor. 

TOGGLE - Small fittings which allow the turnbuckle to 
lie in the same straight line as the stay or shroud to 
which it is fitted. Also, a pin thru eye or bight of rope 
used as a quick release. 

TOPPING LIFT - A line used to support the weight of or 
to adjust the horizontal set of a spar such as a boom or a 
spinnaker pole. 

TOPSIDES - The sides of a vessel between the waterline 
and the deck. 

TRANSOM - The stern cross-section of a square sterned 
boat. 

TRAVELER - A device that allows sheets to slide 
athwartships. 


TRIM - Fore and aft balance of a boat. 

TRUE WIND - The actual direction from which the wind 
is blowing. 

TRUNK - The structure which houses the centerboard. 

TURNBUCKLE - A threaded fitting to pull two eyes 
together for adjustment of standing rigging. 

U 

UNDERWAY - Vessel in motion; i.e., when not moored, 
at anchor, or aground. 

UNREEVE - To run a line completely through and out of 
a block. 

UPPER SHROUDS - The shrouds which run from the 
chain plates at the sides of the boat over the spreaders 
to the masthead. 

V 

VANG - See boom vang. 

V BOTTOM - A hull with the bottom section in the shape 
of a “V”. 

W 

WAKE - Moving waves, track or path that a boat leaves 
behind it, when moving across the waters. 

WATERLINE - A line painted on a hull which shows the 
point to which a boat sinks when it is properly trim¬ 
med (see BOOT TOP). 

WAY - Movement of a vessel through the water such as 
headway, sternway or leeway. 

WEATHER - Windward side of a boat. 

WEATHER HELM - The tendency of a boat to turn into 
the wind when its rudder is set amidships. 

WHARF - A man-made structure bounding the edge of a 
dock and built along or at an angle to the shoreline, 
used for loading, unloading, or tying up vessels. 

WHIPPING - The act of wrapping the end of a piece of 
rope with small line, tape or plastic to prevent it from 
fraying. 

WHISKER POLE - A spar used to extend the jib when 
running. 

WINCH - A device to increase hauling power when 
raising or trimming sails. 

WIND OF MOTION - That wind which is perceived on a 
boat as the result of the movement of the boat itself. 

WINDWARD - Toward the direction from which the 
wind is coming. 

WING AND WING - Running with the mainsail set on 
one side of the boat and the jib set on the other side. 

WORKING SAILS - Sails for use under normal con¬ 
ditions; on a sloop, the mainsail and jib. 

Y 

YAW - To swing off course, as when due to the impact of 
a following or quartering sea. 

YAWL - A two-masted sailboat with the small mizzen 
mast stepped abaft the rudder post. 

C-8 


Index 


A 

Aids to navigation, 
buoys, 12-6 
cans, 12-6 
light patterns, 12-7 
lighthouses, 12-7 
lights, 12-7 
nuns, 12-6 

sound-producing aids, 12-7 
American Boat and Yacht 
Council, 10-2, 10-5 
Anchor lights, 6-6, 6-7, 6-8 
Anchor rode, 7-3 
Anchoring, 

coming into, 4-17 
how to anchor, 7-3, 7-4 
Anchors, 7-1, 7-2, 7-4 
Apparent wind, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 3-4 
Approaches to moorings and piers, 4-19 
Auxiliary engines, 8-1, 8-2 
Azores High, 5-2 

B 

Backstay, 9-9 
Ballast, 1-9 
Barometer, 5-4 
Battens, 1-20 
Beam, 1-9 
Bearing, 12-13 
Beaufort Wind Scale, 5-20 
Belaying, 7-15, 7-16 
Bermuda rig, 1-19, 1-22 
Bilgeboard, 1-11 
Bilgekeel, 1-12 
Binnacle, 12-11 
Blocks, 1-15 
Boom, 1-14 
Boom vang, 9-9, 9-10 
Boot-Stripe, 1-7 
Boot-Top, 1-7 
Bow, 1-7 
Bulkhead, 1-17 


C 

Cam cleat, 1-18 
Capsize, 5-15, 5-16, 5-17 
Catamaran, 1-12 
Centerboard. 1-9, 4-17, 4-19 
Carry, 4-17 

Centerboard, 1-8, 4-17, 4-19 
advantages of, 1-10 
disadvantages of, 1-10 
trunk, 1-9, 1-10 
Chainplates, 1-17 
Charts, 12-2, 12-3 
details of, 12-6 

Small Craft Charts, 12-4, 12-8 
Chine, 1-2 
hard chine, 1-2, 1-3 
round bottom, 1-2 

Chute ( see Spinnaker) 

Citizens Band Radio, 13-7 
Cleats, 1-8 7-15 
cam, 1-18 
jam, 1-18 
Clew, 1-18, 1-19 
Close-hauled, 2-5, 2-6, 3-10 
Clouds, 

altostratus, 5-4 
cirrostratus, 5-4 
cumulonimbus, 5-8 
cumulus, 5-7, 5-8 
stratus, 5-4 
Cockpit sole, 1-8 
Coiling, 7-12, 7-13 
flemish coil, 7-12 
Collar, 1-15 

Coming about ( see Tacking) 
Compass, 12-8 

checking for deviation, 12-13 
lubber’s line, 12-11 
plotting compass courses, 12-12 
selecting a, 12-11 
Compass roses, 12-10 
Courses, 3-9, 3-10, 3-11 


Courtesy Marine Exam¬ 
ination, 6-11, 11-1 
Cunningham, 9-7 

Current, 2-1, 4-15, 4-18, 12-14, 12-15 
Cutter, 9-20 

D 

Dacron, 1-18, 1-20, 9-10, 11-2 
Daggerboard, 1-12, 4-19 
Danforth anchor, 7-1 
Datum, 12-4 
Deck, 1-8 

Deck sweepers, 9-12 
Displacement hull, 1-4 
Distress signals, 5-17, 6-12 
Downhaul, 9-7, 9-14 
Draft, 1-7 
Drifter, 9-13 
Drownproofing, 11-6 


E 

Ebb, 12-16 

Emergency Position Indicating Radio 
Beacon, 13-7 

Engines, 

auxiliary, 8-1, 8-2 
diesel, 8-3, 8-12, 8-14 
gasoline, 8-3, 8-9 
maintenance of, 8-8 
outboard motors, 8-3, 8-4 (see 
also Outboard Motors) 
tool kit for, 8-14 
troubleshooting, 8-9, 8-14 
ventilation of, 8-7, 8-12 

EPIRB, 13-7 

Equipment, 
float coats, 11-4 
foul weather gear, 11-4 
personal gear, 11-1, 11-2, 11-3 
safety standards for, 11-6, 11-7, 11-8, 
11-9, 11-10, 11-11 
wetsuit, 11-4 


INDEX 1-1 


INDEX 


F 

Fairlead, 4-10 
Fathoms, 12-5 

Federal Communications Commis¬ 
sion, 13-1 
Fenders, 7-16 
Fid, 7-10 

Fisherman staysail, 9-20 
Fittings, 1-14, 1-15 
collar, 1-15 
step, 1-15 
tack, 1-15 
Fixed keel, 1-9 
Flemish coil, 7-12 
Float coats, 11-4 
Floodtide, 12-16 
Flotation, 1-8 
Flotation jackets, 11-4 
Fog, 

signal in, 6-8, 6-9, 6-11 
Foot, 1-19 
Foremast, 9-20 
Forestaysail, 9-20 
Foul weather gear, 11-4 


G 

Gaffing, 1-22 

Genoa, 9-10, 9-11, 9-12, 9-17 
Getting underway, 4-14, 4-15, 4-16, 4-17 
4-18, 4-19 
Gooseneck, 1-14 
Ground tackle, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4 
Gunter rig, 1-22 
Guys, 9-14, 9-15 


H 

Halyards, 1-1, 1-17, 1-18 
on gaff rig, 1-22 
wire for, 7-6 
Hanks, 1-20 
Head, 1-19 
Header, 3-9 

Heeling, 3-12, 3-13, 3-14 
Helm, balanced, 9-3 
lee (see Lee Helm) 
weather (see Weather Helm) 

Hiking out, 3-12 
Hoisting sail, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10 
Hoists, 1-19 
Horse, 4-3 
Hull, 1-1 
chine, 1-2, 1-3 
cockpit sole, 1-8 
deck, 1-8 
flotation, 1-8 
liner, 1-8 

parts of, 1-6, 1-7, 1-8 


speed, 1-4 

speed formula, 1-4, 1-5 

trim, 1-7, 

types, 

displacement, 1-4 
planing, 1-4 

Hypothermia, 11-5, 11-6 


I 

International Date Line, 12-10 
Irons in, 3-5, 3-6 


J 

Jam cleats, 1-18 
Jenny (see Genoa) 

Jib, 1-19, 1-20, 2-6 
care of, 4-13 
club, 3-3 
fairlead, 4-10 
hanks, 1-20 
hoisting the, 4-10 
jib boom, 3-3 
making sail, 4-6 
miter seam, 4-10 
roller furling, 5-14 
self-tending, 3-3 
sheets, 4-7, 4-8 
Jibe, 2-4 

accidental jibe, 9-10 
uncontrolled jibe, 3-8 
Jibing, 3-2, 3-7, 3-8, 3-10 
Jumper stays, 1-17 
Jumper struts, 1-15 


K 

Kedge, 7-2 
Keel, 1-6, 1-9 
ballast, 1-9 
fixed, 1-9 
swing, 1-9 
Ketch, 9-18, 9-19 
Knockdown, 5-15, 5-16 
Knots, 

anchor bend, 7-8 
bowline, 4-6, 7-8 
clove hitch, 7-8, 7-15 
double sheet bend, 7-7 
figure eight, 7-7 
fisherman’s bend, 7-8 
reef knot, 7-7 
sheet bend, 7-7 
square knot, 7-7 


L 

Lapper, 9-12 
Lateen rig, 1-22 
Latitude, 12-8, 12-10 
Lee helm, 5-15, 9-3, 9-4, 9-6 


Leeboard, 1-10 
Leech, 1-19 

Leeway, 1-9, 3-10, 3-11 
Length overall, 1-7 
Life jackets, 11-5 (see also 

Personal Flotation Devices) 
Life vests, 11-5 (see also Personal 
Flotation Devices) 

Lift, 3-9 

Lights, (see Anchor Lights, 

Running Lights) 

Line, 

braided line, 7-6, 7-7 
care of, 7-14 
Dacron, 7-5 
laid line, 7-6 
nylon, 7-5 

Line of Position, 12-13 
Longitude, 12-8, 12-10 
Luff, 1-19 
Luff wire, 7-6 


M 

Mainmast, 9-18 
Mainsail, 1-19, 1-20 
care of, 4-13 
hoisting the, 4-9 
making sail, 4-4 
trim, 9-6, 9-7 

Man overboard, 5-17, 5-18, 5-19 
Marconi rig, 1-19 
Mast, 1-14 
rake, 4-3 
step, 1-15, 4-1 
stepping the, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3 
tabernacle, 10-8 
topping lift, 4-3 
Mizzen, 9-18 
Mizzen staysail, 9-19 
Mooring pennant, 7-5 
Mushroom anchor, 7-4, 7-5 


N 

National Ocean Survey, 12-3 
National Weather Service, 5-11 
Navigation, 
aids to, 12-6, 12-7 
celestial, 12-1, 12-10 
coastal, 12-1 
electronic, 12-1 
positioning, 12-13 
speed-time-distance formula, 12-14 
Non-skid, 1-8 
Notice to Mariners, 12-4 


O 

Offshore Racing Council, 11-6 


INDEX 1-2 


INDEX 


Outboard motors, 
maintenance 8-6 
troubleshooting, 8-6, 8-7 
Outhaul, 1-20, 9-7 


Pacific High, 5-2 
Pennant, l-l 1 

Personal Flotation Device, 4-19, 5-11, 
5-17, 5-18, 6-11, 11-4 
PFD (see Personal Flotation Device) 
Piloting, 12-1 
Planing, 1-5, 1-6 
Planing hull, 1-4 
Playing the puffs, 2-8 
Polypropylene, 7-5 
Port tack, 3-1 
Propeller, 
drag, 8-1 

folding propeller, 8-8 
location of, 8-8 


R 

Radiotelephone, 
channels, 13-4 
Citizens Band Radio, 13-7 
Coast Guard channels, 13-8 
FCC types, 13-3 
frequencies, 13-4 

limited coast stations, 13-19, 13-20 
licenses, 13-2, 13-3 
log, 13-10 

operating procedures, 
normal, 13-7, 13-8, 13-9, 

13-10, 13-11 

safety, distress and urgency, 13-13, 
13-14, 13-15, 13-17 
public coast stations, 13-18 
regulations, 13-1 
ship-to-shore calls, 13-18, 13-19 
VHF-FM, 13-3, 13-4 
Rake, 4-3, 9-1 
Range, 3-11 
Reacher, 9-13 
Reaching, 3-10 
beam reach, 2-9 
broad reach, 2-9 
close reach, 2-8 
heading down, 2-8 
heading up, 2-8 
telltales, 2-7, 2-8, 2-9 
Reefing, 5-12 
jiffy or point, 5-13, 5-14 
reef knots, 5-13, 5-14 
reef points, 5-13 
roller reefing, 5-13 
Rig, 1-1, 1-14, 1-19, 1-22 
Rigging, 

adjusting the, 9-2, 9-3 
hot to rig, 9-1 

running (see Running Rigging) 


standing (see Standing Rigging) 
tuning, 9-2, 9-3 
Right of way, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5 
Roach, 1-20 
Roller furling, 5-14 
Rope (see Line) 

Rudder, 1-12, 4-3 
Rules of the Road, 

Great Lakes, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5 
Inland, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5 
International, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-5 
Western Rivers, 6-2, 6-3, 6-5 

Running, 2-4, 3-9 
accidental jibe, 2-4 
jibe, 2-4 

wing and wing, 2-4, 3-7, 3-8 
Running lights, 6-6, 6-7, 6-8 
Running rigging, 

blocks, 1-15 
halyard, 1-17, 1-18 
lift, 1-18 

sheets, 1-17, 1-18 
wire for, 7-6 


S 

Sail stops, 4-6 
Sail trim, 2-6 
Sailboat racing rules, 6-4 
Sailmaker’s palm, 7-11 
Sails, 

Bermudan rig, 1-19, 1-22 
care of, 1-20, 1-22, 4-13 
drifter, 9-13 
fisherman staysail, 9-20 
forestaysail, 9-20 
gaff rig, 1-22 
Genoa (see Genoa) 
gunter rig, 1-22 
jib-headed, 1-19 
lapper, 9-2 
lateen rig, 1-22 
Marconi, 1-19 
mizzen staysail, 9-19 
on a sloop, 1-19 
parts of, 1-19, 1-20 
reacher, 9-13 
roach, 1-20 

spinnaker (see Spinnaker) 
trim, 2-6 

wind pressure on, 2-6 
working, 1-19, 9-10 (see also 
Jib and Mainsail) 
Schooner, 9-20 
Seal of Safety, 6-11 
Seizing, 7-11 
Self-bailers, 1-8 
Sheaves, 1-18 
Sheets, 1-17, 1-18 

care of, 7-14 
jib, 4-7 

spinnaker, 9-14, 9-15 
Signals, 
distress, 5-17 


in fog, 6-8, 6-9, 6-11 
Slides, 1-20, 4-4 
Sloop, 1-22, 9-18, 9-20 
sails on a, 1-19 
“Slot effect,” 2-6 
Slugs, 1-20, 4-5 
Soundings, 12-5 
Spars, 1-14 

foremast, 9-20 
gaff, 1-22 
mainmast, 9-18 
mizzen, 9-18 
tack pendant, 9-20 
whisker pole, 2-4 
yard, 1-22 

Spinnaker, 9-13 
chute, 9-14 
downhaul, 9-14 
dropping the, 9-18 
jibing the, 9-17 
guys, 9-14, 9-15 
pole, 9-14 
radial head, 9-14 
setting a, 9-15, 9-16, 9-17 
sheets, 9-14, 9-15 
starcut, 9-14, 9-16 
topping lift, 9-14 
turtle, 9-15 
Splices, 

eye splice, 7-9, 7-10 
short splice, 7-9, 7-10 
Splicing, 4-7 
Spreaders, 1-17 
Spring lines, 7-16 
Squall line, 5-4 
Squalls, 5-7, 5-8, 5-11, 5-12 
Stability, 3-14, 3-15 
Standing rigging, 
backstays, 1-15 
forestays, 1-15, 1-17 
jumper stays, 1-17 
jumper struts, 1-15 
shrouds, 1-17 
spreaders, 1-17 
toggles, 1-17 
turnbuckles, 1-17 
wire for, 7-6 
Starboard tack, 3-1 
Starcut, 9-14, 9-16 
Staysail, 9-20 
Steel wire, 7-5 
Steering systems, 1-12, 1-13 
Steering wheels, 1-13 
Step, 1-15 
Stern, 1-7 
Swing keel, 1-9 


T 

Tabernacle, 10-8 
Tack, 1-19 
Tack pendant, 9-20 
Tacking, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 3-7 


INDEX 1-3 







































































































It 






















































































































INDEX 


Telltales, 2-3, 2-7 
Tidal Current Charts, 12-16 
Tidal Current Tables, 12-15 
Tide, 12-5, 12-14, 12-15 

ebb, 12-16 
flood, 12-16 
tables, 12-14 
Tiller, 1-13, 4-3 
Toggles, 1-17 
Topping lift, 4-3 
Towing, 5-7 
Towing hitches, 10-2 
Trailers, 

extra equipment for, 10-6 
launching, 10-8, 10-9 
legal requirements for, 10-2, 
proper loading, 10-7 
recovery, 10-9 
requirements, 10-1 
support points, 10-5 
tires and wheels, 10-6 
towing hitches, 10-2 
winch, 10-6 

Trailerable sailboats, 10-1 
Trim, 

hull, 1-7, 1-9 
mainsail, 9-6, 9-7 
sail, 2-6 
Trimaran, 1-12 
Trip line, 7-4 
True wind, 2-1 


Tuning a sailboat, 1-17, 4-10, 4-11, 

9-1, 9-2, 9-3 
Tumbuckles, 1-17 
Turning block, 9-12 
Turtle. 9-15 
Twinkeel, 1-12 
Tying up, 7-15, 7-16 

U 

USCG Navigation Rules, International- 
Inland, 6-2 


V 

Variation, 12-10 

Ventilation Systems. 8-7, 8-8, 8-15 
Vessel Traffic Service (VTS), Appendix B 
VHF-FM, 13-3, 13-4 
Visual Distress Signals, 6-10 

W 

Waterline, 1-7 
Weather, 

air masses, 5-2, 5-3 

Azores High, 5-2 

forecasting, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6 

fronts, 5-3, 5-4 

high pressure areas, 5-2 

local, 5-1, 5-5, 5-6 

low pressure areas, 5-2, 5-3 


marine forecasts, 5-11 
National Weather Service, 5-11 
Pacific High, 5-2 
squall line, 5-4 
squalls, 5-7, 5-8, 5-11 
systems, 5-1 

Weather helm, 5-13, 9-5 
Wet suit, 11-4 
Whipping, 7-11, 7-12 
Whisker pole, 2-4 
Wind, 

apparent, 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 3-4 
direction, 2-1 
header, 3-9 
lift, 3-9 

pressure on sails, 2-6 
telltales, 2-3 
true, 2-1 
vane, 2-3 
vector, 2-2 
wind of motion, 2-1 
wind shifts, 3-9 
wind’s eye, 3-5 
Wing and wing, 2-4, 3-7, 3-8 
Working anchor, 7-2 

Y 

Yachtsman’s anchor, 7-2 
Yard, 1-22 
Yawl, 9-18, 9-19 


INDEX 1-4 




























































n 





































AIDS TO NAVIGATION ON WESTERN RIVERS 

(MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM) 


PORT SIDE 

GREEN OR □ WHITE LIGHTS 
FLASHING 


LIGHTED BUOY 



CAN 


SG 


□ 


PASSING DAYMARK 



CROSSING DAYMARK 


176.9 


MILE BOARD 


AS SEEN ENTERING FROM SEAWARD 


JUNCTION 

MARK JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS 
INTERRUPTED QUICK FLASHING 


PREFERRED CHANNEL PREFERRED CHANNEL 

TO STARBOARD TO PORT 

TOPMOST BAND BLACK TOPMOST BAND RED 


□ WHITE OR 
■ GREEN LIGHTS 

A 


M 


LIGHTED 



□ WHITE OR 
■ RED LIGHTS 
A 


M 



CAN 


NUN 



A 


JG 


JR 


STARBOARD SIDE 

RED OR □ WHITE LIGHTS 
GROUP FLASHING (2) 


£ 


LIGHTED BUOY 



NUN 


A 


PASSING DAYMARK 



123.5 


MILE BOARD 


RANGE DAYMARKS AS FOUND ON 


KGW 


NAVIGABLE WATERS - EXCEPT - ICW - MAY BE LETTERED 
KWG KWB KBW KWR KRW KRB KBR KGB KBG KGR 


Tin 


Tiiin 


KRG 


KGW-I 


INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY - MAY BE LETTERED 
KWG-I KWB-I KBW I KWR-I KRW I KRB-I KBR I KGB-I KBG I KGR I 




HD HD 


KRG I 





















































UNIFORM STATE WATERWAY MARKING SYSTEM 



STATE WATERS AND DESIGNATED STATE WATERS FOR PRIVATE AIDS TO NAVIGATION 


REGULATORY MARKERS 



BOAT 

EXCLUSION 

AREA 


EXPLANATION MAY BE PLACED OUTSIDE 
THE CROSSED DIAMOND SHAPE, SUCH AS 
DAM, RAPIDS, SWIM AREA, ETC. 



DANGER 


THE NATURE OF DANGER MAY BE IN 
DICATED INSIDE THE DIAMOND SHAPE. 
SUCH AS ROCK, WRECK, SHOAL, DAM, ETC. 



CONTROLLED 

AREA 


TYPE OF CONTROL IS INDICATED IN 
THE CIRCLE, SUCH AS SLOW, NO WAKE, 
ANCHORING. ETC. 



FOR DISPLAYING INFORMATION SUCH 
AS DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES, LOCATIONS, ETC. 



AIDS TO NAVIGATION 


MAY SHOW WHITE REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 




MOORING 

BUOY 



WHITE WITH BLUE BAND 

MAY SHOW WHITE 
REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 


MAY BE LETTERED 
DO NOT PASS BETWEEN 
BUOY AND NEAREST SHORE 


MAY SHOW GREEN REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 


MAY BE NUMBERED 

PASS TO NORTH PASS TO SOUTH 

OR EAST OF 8UOY OR WEST OF BUOY 

CARDINAL SYSTEM 


MAY SHOW RED REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 




SN 7530-01-GF2-5540 


LATERAL SYSTEM 










































AIDS TO NAVIGATION ON NAVIGABLE WATERS 
except Western Rivers and Intracoastal Waterway 


LATERAL SYSTEM AS SEEN ENTERING FROM SEAWARD 


PORT SIDE 

ODD NUMBERED AIDS 
GREEN OR □ WHITE LIGHTS 


FIXED = 
FLASHING 
OCCULTING ■" - 
QUICK FLASHINGI 
EQ INT 


LIGHTED BUOY 


"9" 

FI G 4sec 


S 

■ 


CAN 


C"7" 


SG_ 

□ 


DAYMARKS G 

□ 1 


MID CHANNEL 

NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
□ WHITE LIGHT ONLY 


MORSE CODE 


Mo (A) 



JUNCTION 

MARK JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS 
NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
INTERRUPTED QUICK FLASHING 


□ WHITE OR ■ GREEN 


' BR "M" 

I Qk FI G 



□ WHITE OR ■ RED 


"D" 

I Qk FI R 


LIGHTED 


PREFERRED 
CHANNEL TO 
STARBOARD 

ITOPMOST BAND 
BLACK 





PREFERRED 
CHANNEL TO 
PORT 

TOPMOST BAND 
^ RED 

RB 
N"L“ 


NUN 



STARBOARD SIDE 

EVEN NUMBERED AIDS 
RED OR □ WHITE LIGHTS 


FIXED = 
FLASHING 
OCCULTING I 


QUICK FLASHINGI 
EQ INT 
GROUP FLASHING (2) 



R"8" 

FI R 4sec 


LIGHTED BUOY 



N " 6 " 


NUN 


A" 

DAYMARK 


R 

• 2 " 


BUOYS HAVING NO LATERAL SIGNIFICANCE-ALL WATERS 



SHAPE HAS NO SIGNIFICANCE 
NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
MAY BE LIGHTED 
ANY COLOR LIGHT EXCEPT 
RED OR GREEN 


SPECIAL 

PURPOSE 


fixed: 


FLASHING I 
OCCULTING C 


m 


a 


w 
C"N" 

ANCHORAGE 



ffl 


FISH NET 
AREA 




GW 
C 

DREDGING 


UNLIGHTED 


DAYMARKS HAVING NO LATERAL SIGNIFICANCE 




M 

ami 

K 

DANGER 

# ' 

< 

l 


MAY BE LETTERED 


EXCLUSION 

AREA 



SN 7530-01-GF2-5SSO 





























































































































MORSE CODE, CODE FLAGS, PENNANTS, AND PHONETIC ALPHABET 


Alphabet Phonetic Pronunciation 

Flags Letter Alphabet Guide 


a 








m 

a 


□ 

a 

H 







- 


□ 


A ALFA 

Diver Down 


AL FAH 


B BRAVO BRAH VOH 

Dangerous Cargo 

C CHARLIE CHAR LEE 

Yes 

D DELTA DELL TAH 

Maneuvering with Difficulty 

E ECHO ECK OH 

Turning to Starboard 

F FOXTROT FOKS TROT 

/ am Disabled 


G GOLF 
Require Pilot 


GOLF 


H HOTEL HOH TELL 

Have Pilot On Board 

I INDIA IN DEE AH 

Turning To Port 


J JULIETT 

/ am on Fire 


K KILO KEY LOH 

Wish to Communicate 

L LIMA LEE MAH 

Stop Instantly 


M MIKE 
Stopped 


MIKE 


International 
Morse Code 


Alphabet Phonetic- Pronunciation 

Flags Letter Alphabet Guide 


International 
Morse Code 


(Refer to H.O. 102) 


JEW LEE EH - 


N NOVEMBER NO VEM BER — 
No 


O OSCAR OSS CAH 

Man Overboard 


P PAPA PAH PAH 

Report Aboard (in Harbor) 
Net Fouled (at Sea) 

Q QUEBEC KEH BECK 

Request Free Pratique 


R ROMEO ROW ME OH 

(No Single Flag Meaning) 

S SIERRA SEE AIR RAH 

Going Astern 

T TANGO TANG GO 

Pair Trawling 


5 



0 





U UNIFORM YOU NEE FORM- 

You Are Running Into Danger 

V VICTOR VIK TAH - 

/ Require Assistance 

W WHISKEY WISS KEY - 

/ Need Medical Assistance 

X XRAY ECKS RAY - 

Stop and Watch for My Signals 

Y YANKEE YANG KEY - 

Dragging Anchor 

Z ZULU ZOO LOO - 

Require a Tug 


Numeral 

Pennants 


Number 


Pronunciation 

Guide 


International 
Morse Code 



WUN 


TOO 


THUH REE 


FO WER 




FI YIV 


SIX 


SEVEN 


ATE 


NINER 


ZERO 



FIRST 

REPEATER 



THIRD 

REPEATER 



SECOND 

REPEATER 


CODE AND 
ANSWERING 
PENNANT 












































. 
































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♦ 


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